Investigation of Mycoflora and Soil Character from Paddy Soil of Jenbagapuram Village, Thanjavur District, South India

 

Senthilkumar G.¹, Madhanraj P.²* and Panneerselvam A.¹

¹Dept of Botany and Microbiology, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous), Poondi, Thanjavur (Dt) – 613 503, Tamil Nadu, India.

²Dept of Microbiology, Thanthai Hans Roever College of Arts and Science, Elambalur, Perambalur - 621 212, Tamil Nadu, India.

Corresponding author: micromadhan@sify.com

ABSTRACT:

The soil samples were isolated from the paddy soils of Jenbagapuram Village, Thanjavur Dt. Totally 42 species belonged to 20 genera were reported. Out of 42 species, the Deuteromycetes were represented as dominant group (35 species), followed by Phycomycetes (3 species), Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes (each one species) and sterile mycelium (2 species). The physico chemical properties of the soil such as pH (5.6 to 8.06) , electrical conductivity (0.01 to 0.37 ), cation exchange capacity (19.02 to 26.30 ), organic carbon (0.4 to 0.45), available nitrogen (80.6 to 118.02 ), available phosphorus (4.3 to 7.5) , available potassium (77.0 to 125.0), available zinc (0.02 to 0.84), available iron (2.2 to 5.29), available copper (0.20 to 0.92), available manganese (2.02 to 0.84), calcium (8.40 to 12.6), magnesium (2.6 to 9.20) and sodium (0.12 to1.25) were analysed and they were  statistically significant. The correlation co-efficient studies were carried out between soil fungi and physico chemical characters.

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION:

The soil fungi include both ‘soil inhabitants’ and ‘soil invaders’. The interactions between these two groups of organisms are the determinant factors of the competitive survival of the pathogens in soil which include antagonism and symbiosis. Fungal antagonism is usually characterized as the mechanism that protects the prior colonists of the substrates from colonization by other organisms. Garrett (1956, 1970) suggested that the production of antibiotics and the tolerance to the antibiotics produced by the other organisms are the factors that influence the saprophytic survival and competitive saprophytic colonization. Antibiotics are produced by most of the soil microorganism in in vitro conditions. But, most of the attempts to isolate and characterize such substances from natural soil, other than organic substrates proved futile. Nevertheless the in vitro production of antibiotics by fungi could provide valuable information as to how the pathogens survive in soil as saprophyte. It is also accepted in general that the antibiotics are produced in soil and furnish protection in competitive situation by eliminating other microorganisms in soil (Gottlieb, 1976).

 

In the present study soil samples were collected from the paddy field soils of Jenbagapuram village, Thanjavur Dt, the fungal organisms were screened, the physico chemical parameters of the soil were recorded and statistically correlated.

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Description of the study site:

The study site of the present investigation was a paddy field of Jenbagapuram Village, Thanjavur District, Tamilnadu, located in the Cauvery River basin at 79.6 N and 11.2 E latitude and the MSL is 43’. The soil is reddish alluvial type. The climate of the area is tropical and monsoon. It receives fairly good rainfall during the period of north east monsoon (October 2007 – November – extends up to January2008) and south east monsoon (June 2007 – July extends up to August 2007). The minimum temperature was 19.2^oC (low temperature during February) and the maximum temperature was 37.4°C (during the month of May and June). The field was under cultivation of paddy during the month of August 2007 to January 2008. Black gram, green gram, and groundnut were also cultivated as alternate rain feed crop during the period of January 2008 – April 2008. The meteorological data regarding the annual rainfall, atmospheric humidity, atmospheric temperature, etc, were obtained from Meteorological Department, Thanjavur (Fig.1).

 

Table 1. Total number of colonies, mean density (CFU/g), percentage contribution, percentage frequency and frequency class of different species of fungi recorded at Jenbagapuram-2007

S. No	Name of the organisms	Postmonsoon		Summer		Premonsoon		Monsoon		TNC	% con	Number of seasons in which the fungus occurred	% freq.	Freq. contri bution
		TNC	MD	TNC	MD	TNC	MD	TNC	MD
1.	Absidia glauca	-	-	-	-	6	2	5	1.6	11	2.27	2	50	O
2.	Choanephora	3	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	10	2.06	2	50	O
3.	Rhizopus nigricans	-	-	-	-	-	-	7	2.3	7	1.44	1	25	R
4.	Chaetomium globosum	-	-	3	1	7	2.3	-	-	10	2.06	2	50	O
5.	Acrocylindrum oryzae	7	2.3	-	-	-	-	-	-	7	1.44	1	25	R
6.	Acrophilophora fusispora	2	0.66	4	1.3	-	-	9	3	15	3.09	3	75	F
7.	Aspergillus awamori	4	1.3	-	-	-	-	10	3.3	14	2.89	2	50	O
8.	A. clavatus	4	1.3	-	-	10	3.3	11	3.6	25	5.16	3	75	F
9.	A. flavus	-	-	-	-	3	1	12	4	15	3.09	2	50	O
10.	A. fumigates	-	-	4	1.3	4	1.3	-	-	8	1.65	2	50	O
11.	A. luchuensis	4	1.3	-	-	6	2	-	-	10	2.06	2	50	O
12.	A. nidulans	-	-	-	-	-	-	8	2.6	8	1.65	1	25	R
13.	A. niger	8	2.6	6	2	7	2.3	4	1.3	25	5.16	4	100	C
14.	A. parasiticus	-	-	-	-	7	2.3	9	13	16	3.3	2	50	O
15.	A. sulphureus	-	-	7	2.3	-	-	-	-	7	1.44	1	25	R
16.	A. sydowi	4	1.3	-	-	-	-	2	0.66	6	1.23	2	50	O
17.	A. terreus	5	1.6	-	-	8	2.6	3	1	16	3.3	3	75	F
18.	A. variecolor	-	-	8	2.6	-	-	-	-	8	1.65	1	25	R
19.	A. versicolor	-	-	-	-	-	-	10	3.3	10	2.06	1	25	R
20.	Botrydiploidia theobromae	4	1.3	-	-	-	-	11	3.6	15	3.09	2	50	O

Contd../-

 

Contd… Table 1

. No	Name of the organisms	Postmonsoon		Summer		Premonsoon		Monsoon		TNC	% con	Number of seasons in which the fungus occurred	% freq.	Freq. contri bution
		TNC	MD	TNC	MD	TNC	MD	TNC	MD
21.	Curvularia lunata	-	-	7	2.3	9	3	-	-	16	3.3	2	50	O
22.	Fusarium chlamydosporum	5	1.6	-	-	-	-	12	4	17	3.51	2	50	O
23.	F. moniliforme	-	-	5	1.6	9	3	5	1.6	19	3.92	3	75	F
24.	F. oxysporum	4	1.3	3	1	4	1.3	8	2.6	19	3.92	4	100	C
25.	Helminthosporium oryzae	-	-	8	2.6	-	-	-	-	8	1.65	1	25	R
26.	Humicola sp	3	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	3	0.61	1	25	R
27.	Penicillium chrysogenum	-	-	-	-	-	-	5	1.6	5	1.03	1	25	R
28.	P. janthinellum	4	1.3	-	-	-	-	7	2.3	11	2.27	2	50	O
29.	P. rubrum	-	-	7	2.3	-	-	-	-	7	1.44	1	25	R
30.	Trichoderma harzianum	5	1.6	4	1.3	6	2	9	3	24	4.95	4	100	C
31.	T. viride	-	-	6	2	-	-	-	-	6	1.23	1	25	R
32.	Verticillium sp.	7	2.3	-	-	11	3.6	8	2.6	26	5.37	3	75	F
33.	Sclerotium rolfsii	8	2.6	7	2.3	-	-	-	-	15	3.35	2	50	O
34.	White sterile mycelium	7	2.3	-	-	11	3.6	10	3.3	28	6.26	3	75	F
	Total no of colonies	88	29.6	79	25.9	115	47.9	165	54.2	447	99.79	75	1875
	Total no of species	20		15		18		22

 

R              - Rare (0-25%)                                                         TNC – Total number of colonies

O             - Occasional (26-50%)                                             MD – Mean density

F              - Frequent (51-75%)

C              - Common (76-100%)

 

 

Table 2. Total number of colonies, mean density (CFU/g), percentage contribution, percentage frequency and frequency class         (2008)

S. No.	Name of the organisms	Postmonsoon		Summer		Premonsoon		Monsoon		TNC	% CON	Number of season in which the fungus occurred	% Freq.	Freq. Contribution
		TNC	MD	TNC	MD	TNC	MD	TNC	MD
	Phycomycetes
1.	Absidia glauca	-	-	-	-	4	1.3	7	2.3	11	3.75	2	50	O
2.	Rhizopus nigricans	11	3.6	-	-	3	1	-	-	14	4.77	2	50	O
	Ascomycetes
3.	Chaetominum globosum	-	-	-	-	-	-	8	2.6	8	2.73	1	25	R
	Deuteromycetes
4.	Aspergillus clavatus	-	-	4	1.3	-	-	-	-	4	1.36	1	25	R
5.	A. conicus	-	-	-	-	-	-	4	1.3	4	1.36	1	25	R
6.	A. fumigates	10	3.3	3	1	-	-	-	-	13	4.43	2	50	O
7.	A. nidulans	-	-	7	2.3	-	-	-	-	7	2.38	1	25	R
8.	A. niger	4	1.3	-	-	4	1.3	4	1.3	12	4.09	3	75	F
9.	A. ochraceous	6	2	4	1.3	3	1	5	1.6	18	6.14	45	100	C
10.	A. sulphureus	-	-	-	-	-	-	7	2.3	7	2.38	1	25	R
11.	A. terreus	-	-	7	2.3	-	-	-	-	7	2.38	1	25	R
12.	A. ustus	-	-	-	-	-	-	8	2.6	8	2.73	1	25	R
13.	A. variecoloar	-	-	8	2.6	-	-	-	-	8	2.73	1	25	R
14.	A. versicolor	7	2.3	-	-	-	-	-	-	7	2.38	1	25	R
15.	A. wentii	-	-	-	-	4	1.3	9	3	13	4.43	2	50	O
16.	Fusarium sporotrichoides	-	-	8	2.6	-	-	10	3.3	18	6.14	2	50	O
17.	F. oxysporum	6	2	7	2.3	5	1.6	4	1.33	22	7.5	4	100	C

Contd…/-

 

 

Contd… Table 2

S. No.	Name of the organisms	Postmonsoon		Summer		Premonsoon		Monsoon		TNC	% CON	Number of season in which the fungus occurred	% Freq.	Freq. Contri bution
		TNC	MD	TNC	MD	TNC	MD	TNC	MD
18.	Penicillium janthinellum	7	2.3	-	-	3	1	-	-	10	3.41	2	50	O
19.	P. rubrum	-	-	7	2.3	-	-	-	-	7	2.38	1	25	R
20.	Trichoderma viride	4	1.3	5	1.6	-	-	7	2.3	16	5.46	3	75	F
21.	T. harzianum	4	1.3	3	1	4	1.3	8	2.6	19	6.48	4	100	C
22.	Botrydiploidia theobromae	6	2	-	-	-	-	-	-	6	2.04	1	25	R
23.	Curvularia lunata	-	-	-	-	-	-	9	3	9	3.07	1	25	R
24.	Helminthosporium oryzae	7	2.3	-	-	3	1	-	-	10	3.41	2	50	O
25.	Memnoniella sp.	-	-	-	-	-	-	4	1.3	4	1.36	1	25	R
26.	Spicaria sp.	8	2.6	-	-	4	1.3	-	-	12	4.09	2	50	O
27.	Sclerotium rolfsii	-	3	7	2.3	-	-	-	-	16	5.46	2	50
28.	Black sterile mycelium	9	-	-	-	-	-	3	1	3	1.02	1	25	R
	Total no. of colonies	89	9.3	70	22.9	37	12.1	91	31.8	293	99.86	50	1300
	Total no. of species	13		12		10		15

R              - Rare (0-25%)                                                         TNC – Total number of colonies

O             - Occasional (26-50%)                                             MD – Mean density

F              - Frequent (51-75%)

C              - Common (76-100%)

 

 

Sampling schedule:

Soil samples were collected from the sampling station seasonally for a period of two years from January 2007 to December 2008. Based on the climate conditions, the calendar year has been divided into four seasons viz., post monsoon (January - March), summer (April – June), pre monsoon (July - September) and monsoon (October - December).

Physico-chemical properties of the soil:

Moisture content of the soil was estimated by finding the weight difference of known quantity of soil before and after drying in a hot air oven at 60°C for 6 h. Soil samples were suspended in distilled water (1:2 w/v) and allowed to settle down the sand particles. The pH of the suspension was recorded using digital meter (Systronics, India).

 

Electrical conductivity of soil was determined in the filtrate of the water extract using Conductivity Bridge as described by Jackson (1973), and cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil was determined by using 1 N ammonium acetate solution as described by Jackson (1973).

 

Organic carbon content of the soil was determined by adopting chromic acid wet digestion method of Walkley and Black (1934), available nitrogen was estimated by alkaline permanganate method as described by Subbiah and Asija (1956), and available phosphorus by Brayl method as described by Bray and Kutz (1945). Available potassium was extracted from soil with neutral 1 N ammonium acetate (1:5) and the potassium content in the extract was determined by using flame photometer (Standfold and English, 1949). Calcium (Neutral 1 NNH₄ OAC extractable 1:5) was extracted with neutral 1 N ammonium acetate and the available calcium in the extract was determined by versenate method (Jackson, 1973). Available micronutrients such as Zn, Cu and Mn were determined in the diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid extract of soil using Perkin-Elmer Model 2280 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Lindsay and Norvell, 1978). Other nutrients such as magnesium, sodium and available iron were also analysed following method of Muthuvel and Udayasoorian (1999).

 

 

Isolation of fungi from soil:

Ten grams of soil sample was taken in a 250 ml conical flask containing 100 ml sterile distilled water. The flask was shaken on a shaker to get a homogenous suspension and serial dilution (Warcup, 1950) of the sample was prepared. One ml of 10^-2 dilution was plated into Petri dish containing PDA medium. The pH of the medium was adjusted to 5.6, streptomycin sulphate 100 mg^-1 was added to the medium to prevent the bacterial contamination. The plates were incubated at 25 ± 2°C for five days and the fungi appearing on the medium were recorded. Mean density was expressed in terms of colony forming unit (CFU) per gram of soil in particular dilution factor ( Ambigapathy et al ,1994). The number of fungal species recorded was referred to as species diversity.

 

In order to assess the dominance of individual fungal species in each site, percentage contribution was determined as follows:

 

                                      No. of colonies of fungus in a sample

Percentage contribution =         ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾   x 100

                                               Total number of colonies of all

                                                     the species in a sample

 

Frequency occurrence was calculated as follows in order to identify their existence in the soils collected from different areas:

                                           No of soil samples from which

                                                 fungi were recorded

Percentage frequency   =     ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾     x 100

                                               No of soil samples

 

Based on the frequency occurrence, the fungi were grouped as rare (0-25% frequency), occasional (26-50% frequency), frequent (51-75% frequency) and common (76 -100% frequency) species.

 

The fungi were identified by using standard manuals, such as manual of Soil Fungi (Gillman, 1957), Dermatiaceous Hypomycetes (Ellis, 1971), More Dermatiaceous Hypomycetes (Ellis, 1976) and Hyphomycetes (Subramanian, 1971).

 

Statistical analysis:

Pearson’s correlation analysis was used to assess the relationship between physico-chemical parameters and total fungal colonies. The data were computed and analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Percentage of significance was recorded between the parameters Table (3and4).

 

RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

In the present investigation, initially the survey was conducted to find out the fungal community isolated from the paddy soils of Jenbagapuram Village, Thanjavur Dt. Species diversity of fungi showed the existence of 42 species belonged to 20 genera. Members of the Deuteromycetes were represented as dominant group  (35 species), followed by Phycomycetes (3 species), Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes (each one) and sterile mycelium (2 species). All these fungal species were reported earlier from soils and variety of substrates in the terrestrial environment by Gillman (1995).

 

The species diversity of fungi has been reported from paddy field soil (45) which was less than wheat (53), sugarcane (49) and grassland (56) (Saravanamuthu, 1985). The species diversity of the present study was also comparatively very low (27) in the paddy field soil. The biologist reported that total of 22 species fungi representing  9 genera were recorded from three sampling station (Senthilkumar et al,2009).The variation in the species diversity and relative density of fungal species in different field soils may be attributed to vegetation cover and disturbances caused due to agricultural practices. The distribution of fungi in the marine environment has not been studied well  when compared with the studies on the fungi in fresh water and terrestrial ecosystem. They are poorly represented in the sea, Since the marine fungi, account for only 5% of the total fungal flora(Manoharachary, et al.,2005). Diversity of the soil micro fungal communities to be reduced by cultivation, burning, clipping, grazing, irrigation, fertilization and perhaps most other disturbance and manipulation activities (Gochenaur and Woodwell, 1974; Christensen, 1989).

 

Table 3. Correlation coefficient (r) values for various physico-chemical parameters and total number of colonies and total number of species recorded during 2007 from Janbagapuram (n = 4)

	pH	EC (dSm-1)	CAT	OC (%)	AN (kg/ac)	AP (kg/ac)	AZ (ppm)	AC (ppm)	AI (ppm)	AM (ppm)	TNC	TNS
pH	1
EC (dSm-1)	-0.47472	1
CAT	0.256995	-0.45803	1
OC (%)	-0.08027	0.030352	0.391982	1
AN (kg/ac)	0.751133*	-0.67913	0.677591*	0.255872	1
AP (kg/ac)	0.559148*	-0.35359	0.296632	0.176619	0.689059*	1
AP (kg/ac)	0.381212	-0.77563	0.393401	0.134728	0.629887*	0.720509*	1
AZ (ppm)	0.649761*	-0.54137	0.002384	-0.46468	0.517652	0.245289	0.248308	1
AC (ppm)	0.366456	-0.17761	0.383453	0.266667	0.437208	0.325871	0.059606	0.272337	1
AI (ppm)	0.192152	-0.50976	0.632422*	0.107279	0.55927*	0.397157	0.56398	0.398105	0.199206	1
AM (ppm)	0.004951	0.203645	-0.5621	-0.42922	-0.51857	-0.62002	-0.53789	0.066497	-0.3693	-0.60712	1
TNC	0.33192	-0.6925	0.063903	-0.1583	0.424084	0.523604*	0.863566*	0.337868	-0.18145	0.298407	-0.22615	1
TNS	0.213856	-0.40506	0.632811*	0.202769	0.465211	0.641094	0.71787	-0.08832	0.359887	0.551574*	-0.7131	0.403224	1

EC – Electrical conductivity,  CAT – Cation exchange, OC – Organic carbon, AN – Available nitrogen, AP – Available Potassium, AP – Available phosphorus, Az – Available zinc, AC – Available copper, AI – Available iron, AM – Available manganese,

TNC – Total number of colonies, TNS – Total number of species.

* Significant at 5% level (P < 0.05).

 

 

Table 4. Correlation coefficient (r) values for various physico-chemical parameters and total number of colonies and total number of species recorded during 2008 from Janbagapuram (n = 4)

	pH	EC (dSm-1)	CAT	OC (%)	AN (kg/ac)	AP (kg/ac)	AZ (ppm)	AC (ppm)	AI (ppm)	AM (ppm)	TNC	TNS
pH	1
EC (dSm-1)	-0.2292	1
CAT	0.593767*	-0.39664	1
OC (%)	0.043652	0.517008*	-0.10 933	1
AN (kg/ac)	0.249266	-0.58131	0.502975*	-0.32 48	1
AP (kg/ac)	0.639325*	-0.19569	0.655818*	0.01858	0.522085	1
AP (kg/ac)	0.077264	-0.42704	0.257788	0.059784	0.48824	0.595308*	1
AZ (ppm)	0.23565	-0.5542	0.79216*	-0.84 591	0.598506*	0.388337	0.176185	1
AC (ppm)	0.44033	-0.71107	0.823944*	-0.27 536	0.384775	0.44535	0.341892	0.782617	1
AI (ppm)	0.004467	-0.14876	-0.22 914	0.097	0.292308	-0.236 58	0.152081	-0.08 866	-0.24 208	1
AM (ppm)	-0.11433	-0.03342	-0.51 586	-0.06 988	-0.14 525	-0.648 26	-0.54 428	-0.30 371	-0.42 133	0.578016	1
TNC	0.27255	-0.46265	0.489126	0.075105	0.779267*	0.555254*	0.573808*	0.484964	0.422186	0.346789	-0.0 9603	1
TNS	0.162701	0.314338	0.320882	0.070762	-0.08 786	0.135121	-0.53 735	0.232593	0.032127	-0.44 291	-0.0 0744	-0.06 742	1

EC – Electrical conductivity,  CAT – Cation exchange, OC – Organic carbon, AN – Available nitrogen, AP – Available Potassium, AP – Available phosphorus, Az – Available zinc, AC – Available copper, AI – Available iron, AM – Available manganese,

TNC – Total number of colonies, TNS – Total number of species.

* Significant at 5% level (P < 0.05).

 

 

The species of Aspergillus have been reported as the most tolerant one to the adverse conditions in the laboratory (Rai et al., 1970; Venkatraman and Rajyalakshmi, 1971) and species of Aspergillus and Penicillium were tolerant to wide range of environmental conditions (Phanasenko, 1967). The species of Aspergillus, Gliocladium and Penicillium have been reported to possess the ability to survive even in the soil subjected to subleathal heating (Papavizas, 1985). Saravanamthu (1985) recorded the species diversity and relative diversity of the fungal species in grassland, wheat, paddy and sugarcane soils.

 

During 2007, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum and Trichoderma harzianum  (100% each) were recorded as common species, followed by Acrophilophora fusispora, Aspergillus clavatus, A. terreus, F. moniliforme, Verticillium and white sterile mycelium (75% each) recorded frequent in occurence, Absidia glauca, Choanephora sp., Cheatomioum globosum, A. awamori, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. luchuensis, A. parasiticus, A. sydowi, Botrydiploidia theobromae, Curvularia lunata, F. chlamydosporum, Penicillium janthinellum and Sclerotium rolfsii (50% each) were occasional, while Acrocylindrium oryzae, A. nidulans,
A. sulphureus, A. variecolor, A. versicolor, P. chrysogenum, P. rubrum and Trichoderma viride (25% each) were rare in their occurrence.(Table 1)

 

In 2008, Aspergillus ochraceous, Fusarium oxysporum and Trichoderma harzianum showed 100 per cent of frequency in their occurrence and they were grouped as common species. Both A. niger and T. viride (75% each) were frequent, Absidia glauca, Rhizopus nigricans, A.  globosum, A. clavatus, A. conicus, A. nidulans, A. sulphureus, A. terreus, A. ustus, A. variecolor, A. versicolor, P. rubrum, Botrydiploidia theobromae, Curuvularia lunata, Memnoniella sp. and black sterile mycelium (25% each) were rare in their occurrence.(Table 2)

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

The authors thank the Secretary and Correspondent A.V.V.M. Sri Pushpam College, Poondi – 615 503, Thanjavur Dt. for providing laboratory facilities.

 

REFERENCE:

1.        Ambikapathy, V., Panneerselvam, A., and Chandrasekaran, R., 1994. Populaiton dynamics of mycoflora in the paddy field of Mannargudi, Nagai Quaid-e-Milleth District, Tamil Nadu, Intl. J. GeobiosNewsReport,13:171-174.

2.        Bray, R.H., and Kutz, L.T., 1945. Determination of total organic and available phosphorus in soils. Soil Sci., 59: 39-45.

3.        Christensen, M., 1989. A view of fungal ecology, Mycologia, 81(1).

4.        Ellis, M.B., 1971. Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes. Kew, Surrey, England: Commonwealth Mycological Institute Pub.

5.        Ellis, M.B., 1976. More Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes. Kew, Surrey, England: Commonwealth Mycological Institute Pub.

6.        Garrett, S.D., 1956. Biology of Root Infecting Fungi. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.294

7.        Garrett, S.D., 1970. Pathogenic Root Infecting Fungi. New York: Cambridge University Press.

8.        Gillman, J.C., 1957. A Manual of Soil Fungi, Received 2^nd edn., Oxford and I.B.H. Publishing Company (Indian reprint), Calcutta, Bombay, New Delhi, pp.250 and 436.

9.        Gillman, J.C., 1995. A Manual of Soil Fungi. 2^nd edn. Calcutta: Oxford and IBH Publishing Company.

10.     Gochenaur, S.E., and Woodwell, G.M., 1974. The soil micro fungi of a chronically irradiated Oak – Pine forest. Ecol., 55: 1004-1016.

11.     Gottlieb, D., 1976. The production and role of antibiotic in soil. J. Antibiot., 22: 687-693.

12.     Jackson, M.L., 1973. Soil Chemical Analysis. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.

13.     Lindsay, W.C., and Norvell, A., 1978. Development of a DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese and copper. Proc. Soil Sci. Am., 42: 421-428.

14.     Manoharachary,C., Sridhar,K.,Singh,R., Adholeya,A.,Suriyanarayanan,T.S., Rawat,S.and Johri,B.N., 2005.Fungal biodiversity Distribution, Conservation and prospecting of fungi from India. Current science.89(1).

15.     Muthuvel, P., and Udayasoorian, C., 1999. Soil, Plant, Water and Agrochemical Analysis. Coimbatore, India: Tamil Nadu Agriculture University.

16.     Papavizas, G.C., 1985. Trichoderma and Gliolcladium: Biology, ecology and potetial for biocontrol. Ann. Rev. Phytopath., 23: 23-54

17.     Rai, J.N., Sharma, B.B., and Agarwal, S.C., 1970. Increased pH tolerance of some Aspergillus isolated from “Usar” (alkaline) soils, A possible indication for ecological specialization, Sydowa. Ann. Mycol., 24: 2336-2344.

18.     *Phanasenko, U.T., 1967. Ecology of Micofungi. Bot. Rev., 33: 183-225.

19.     Saravanamuthu, R., 1985. Studies on phialide bearing soil fungi with emphasis on fungistatsis and antibiosis. Ph.D. Thesis. Varanasi, India: Banaras Hindu University.

20.     Senthilkumar, G., Madhanraj, P., Kanimozhi, K and Panneerselvam, A., 2009. Biodiversity of  Mycoflora from muthupet Mangroves,Tamilnadu. J.Microbialworld 11(1)pp31-36

21.     Standfold, S., and English, L., 1949. Use of flame photometer I rapid soil test for K and Ca. Agron. J., 41: 419-424.

22.     Subbiah, B.V., and Asija, G.L., 1956. A rapid method for estimation of available nitrogen in soil. Curr. Sci.,25: 258-260.

23.     Subramanian, C.V., 1971. Hypomycetes, New Delhi: ICAR Publication

24.     Venkatraman, G.S., and Rajyalakshmi, B., 1971. Interaction between pesticides and soil microorganisms. Indian J. Exp. Biochem., 9: 521-522.

25.     Walkely, A., and Black, I.A., 1934. Rapid titration method. Soil Sci., 37: 29-38.

26.     Warcup, J.H., 1950. The soil plate method for isolation of fungi from soil. Nature, 166: 117-118.

 

 

 

 

Received on 31.07.2011          Modified on 20.08.2011

Accepted on 04.09.2011         © RJPT All right reserved