Marine- Most Diverse Sources Promising as Potential to Drug Therapy

 

Ashawat M.S.1*, Chauhan L.S.1 , PratimaAshawat2

1B.N. Girls College of Pharmacy, Udaipur (Rajasthan)

2B.N. Girls P.G. College, Udaipur (Rajasthan)

*Corresponding Author E-mail: msaresearch@rediffmail.com

 

ABSTRACT:

New trends in drug discovery from natural sources emphasize on investigation of the marine ecosystem to explore numerous complex and novel chemical entities. These entities are the sources of new leads for treatment of many diseases such as cancer, AIDS, inflammatory conditions, and a large variety of viral, bacterial and fungal diseases.

Sponges, the most primitive multicellular invertebrates, considered as a gold mine during the past 50 years, have fascinated scientists for isolation of promising bioactive compounds for human welfare. Published literature, patents and other scientific records on the genotoxicity and anticancer potentials of marine compounds revealed that few compounds have gone through preclinical evaluations.

 

Study of marine organisms is a discipline, which endeavors to identify and decipher the troubles regarding not only sustainable exploitation of marine life for human health and welfare but also for marine ecology. Study of marine organisms for their bioactive potential, being an important part of marine ecosystem, has picked up the rhythm in recent years with the growing recognition of their importance in human life. This interdisciplinary study of the life in the oceans ensures an exciting new frontier of scientific discovery and economic opportunity.

 

KEY WORDS:

 

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Marine biology is the scientific study of living organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water. Marine life is a rich source of food, medicine, and raw material and help to support recreation and tourism all over the world. Marine organisms contribute significantly to the oxygen cycle, and are involved in the regulation of the providing, earth’s climate. (1)

 

Marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organism and abiotic items may be trapped in surface tension between the ocean and atmosphere, to the depths of the abyssal trenches, sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean.   

 

The deepest recorded oceanic trenches measure to date is the Mariana trench, near the Philippines, in the Pacific Ocean at 10924 m (35838 ft). At such depths, water pressure is extreme and there is no sunlight, but some life still exists. (2)

 

Some of marine organisms are antimicrobial, antiviral, antibiotic, anticancer/ cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, enzyme inhibitors, prostaglandins, neurophysiological and cardiovascular agents. Many of the species contain toxic compounds. (3-5)

 

Several of these compounds show pharmacological activities and are helpful for the invention and discovery of bioactive compounds, primarily for deadly diseases like cancer, acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome (AIDS), arthritis, etc.(6) while other compounds have been developed as analgesics or to treat inflammation, etc. The lifesaving drugs are mainly found abundantly in microorganisms, algae and invertebrates, while they are scarce in vertebrates. Modern technologies have opened vast areas of research for the extraction of biomedical compounds from oceans and seas.

 

Marine organisms are use with fully or partially to make or modify products, to improve plants or animals or to develop microorganisms for specific uses via marine biotechnology. With the help of different molecular and biotechnological techniques, communities of researcher are able to elucidate many biological methods application to both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Only 10% of over 25,000 plants have been investigated for biological activity.(7) The marine environment may contain over 80% of world’s plants and animal species.

 

In recent years, many bioactive compounds have been extracted, from various marine animals like tunicates, sponges, soft corals, sea hares, nudibranchs, bryozoans, sea slugs and marine organisms.

 

Life originates in the sea and during evolution, marine organisms have developed into very sophisticated physiological and biochemical systems. During the adaptation to the terrestrial environment, a number of physiological changes have taken place, but in most cases, the basic functions were almost completely retained. Marine thermococcales have been an important source of high fidelity thermostable DNA polymerases (pfu, vent, pab, etc.) and in addition, the high structural conservation and complementation of DNA replication proteins between euryarchaeal pyrococcus and humans make hyperthermophilic archaea a model of choice to study eukaryotic DNA replication.(8) Insulin from fish such as cod exerts the same hormonal activity in mammals as dose homologous insulin and insulin from tuna (which has a 40% difference in amino acid residue) that has been used to treat diabetic patients.(9) The architecture of the shark liver is similar to the human liver and the biochemical transformations which take place in a shark’s liver appear to be similar to those that occur in a human liver, with slight modification. The eyes of man and octopus are very similar in structure and function irrespective of the fact that no evolutionary link exists between them. This suggests that the basic physiological functions of molecules may possibly occur during evolution.

 

The search for new metabolites from marine organisms has resulted in the isolation of more or less 10,000 metabolites, many of which are endowed with pharmacodynamic properties. (10)

 

1.2 Characteristics of the marine:

Water is most essential for the maintenance and activities in all life forms. Water is an important component of cell constituting about 80% of the weight of protoplasm. For the photosynthetic process in autotrophic plants, water itself is an important raw material. It is a universal solvent, which carries the necessary gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide and also the growth regulating minerals in dissolved condition.

 

Due to high transparency of water, photosynthesis is possible even at a relatively deeper level. The sea water can change from acid to alkaline condition and vice versa. This buffering nature is useful to organisms because an abundant supply of carbon dioxide is necessary for plants for photosynthesis. In case of alkaline condition, the construction of shells by marine organisms by using calcium carbonate is enhanced.

 

The lower specific gravity of sea water is most beneficial to marine organisms. As the sea water contains large number of salts it is a most suitable, environment for living cells.  It has been found that the ratio of total salt content of seawater is almost same as that of body fluids of many   invertebrates. (11)

 

In general, the marine environment offers a wide range of living conditions. The salinity ranges from very dilute estuarine condition to as high as 37 %. Varying light conditions exist with brilliant sunlight at the surface waters to no light in the deep waters. Likewise, the pressure varies from 1 atmosphere at the surface to 1000 atmospheres at greater depths. These gradients of environmental parameters are favourable to a number of sensitive animals. The more fluctuations of environmental features are especially encountered in coastal areas due to their peculiar physiographic characters. The water movement / circulation is useful in the oxygenation of subsurface water, for the dispersal of metabolic wastes and plant and animal (growth) nutrients, and also for the disposal of spores, eggs, larvae and even adults.

 

The marine environment is an exceptional reservoir of bioactive natural products, many of which exhibit structural, chemical features not found in terrestrial natural products. Because of the physical and chemical conditions in the marine environment, almost every class of marine organism exhibits a variety of molecules with unique structural features. (12)              

 

1.3 Marine pharmaceuticals:

Marine pharmaceuticals are chemical substances derived from marine organisms are effective in various types of medical treatment and research. Study of marine natural product chemistry is also an important part of marine drug research studies. Most pharmaceuticals have been derived from terrestrial organisms, but with twice as many animal phyla in the ocean as on land, as well as a plethora of different micro-organisms, the chances of finding novel natural compounds useful for biomedical purposes are high. (13)

 

The chemicals produced by other organisms include terpenes, acetogenics, various alkaloids, and polyphenols. These have either proven or potential value that ranges from use as antibiotics, pain suppressors, and anti-inflammatory agents to sunscreens and anti-cancer agents.

 

For instances neurotoxins (nerve poisons) like tetradotoxin renders pufferfish (Tetraodontidae) fatal to eat and is also the basis of the fatal bite of the Great Barrier Reef’s blue-ringed octopus Hapalochlaena maculosa.(14) These neurotoxins block sodium channels in nerve endings and have considerable value in biomedical research.

 

Some sponges produce a substance Halichondrin B, which is used in the treatment of ovarian cancer, melanomas, and leukaemia. (15) The larvae of a type of shrimp are covered with bacteria which, if removed, result in over 90% of the larvae dying. It turns out that these bacteria secrete a toxic chemical, isatin (2, 3-indoledione), that protects the larva from fungal infections, and may give us similar protection. A sea mat (Bugula) produces Bryostatin, which has immuno-stimulating properties and is used in the treatment of leukaemia. (16) The blood of the horseshoe crab (Limulus) has a single, very sensitive, clotting agent that is used to detect any impurities and endotoxins contaminating surgical instruments.

 

Numerous laboratories around the world are actively screening marine organisms for biological active substances that may have a variety of potential uses. A British company dedicated to marine drug discovery announced in 2003 that it had discovered a marine microbe that in laboratory tests has produced a toxin that kills methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureas (MRSA), currently (2004) such a threat to anyone undergoing surgery. Antarctica is of particular interest to biotech companies and one firm has patented the molecule responsible for producing `antifreeze’ in Antarctic fish which could be used commercially to protect frozen food. However, ‘bioprospecting’ in Antarctica could prove a problem as it could infringe the international Antarctic Treaty, which protects the area from commercial exploitation. (13)

 

1.3.1 Marine organisms:

Many compounds are isolated from marine organisms and their biological activities attributed to them, those that have either been marketed or are under development are very few. The soft coral (Plexaura homomalla) was contemplated for the production of prostaglandins, which is a rich source of 15-epi-PGA2 and its acetate, methyl ester derivative. These can be converted into PGE2 and PGF2a which at the time were the compounds in demand for prostaglandin research. (17) However, subsequent synthetic routes to the desired prostaglandins thankfully rendered the widespread collection of Plexaura unnecessary.

 

Screening for other activities has also been undertaken, for example for antiviral, antiinflammatory, anticoagulant and antiparasitic compounds. Because of the highly chemical and physical harsh conditions in marine environment, the organisms produce a variety of molecules with unique structural features and exhibit various types of biological activities. (18)

 

Many of the compounds shown to have promising biological properties have complicated chemical structures, the synthesis of which would be hard and expensive. The pharmaceutical industry is unlikely to consider development of a complex compound extracted from a marine organism, which is probably obtainable in comparatively small quantities and often from a relatively remote area. These organisms are valuable as sources of new biologically active chemical structures, but unless either the compounds or a derivative of them can be readily synthesized, they are of little commercial interest to the pharmaceutical industry. (19)

 

Majority of the marine natural products have been isolated from sponges, coelenterates (sea whips, sea fans and soft corals), tunicates, opisthobranch molluscs (nudibranchs, sea hares, etc.), echinoderms (starfish, sea cucumbers, etc.) and bryozoans (moss animals) and a wide variety of marine microorganisms in their tissues. (20)

 

Sponges are considered as a gold mine during the past 50 years, have fascinated scientists for isolation of promising bioactive compounds for human welfare.Cytarabine (Cytostar-U) also known as Ara-C, a compound isolated from the Caribbean sponge Cryptotheca crypta currently being used with other anticancer drugs in the treatment of acute myelocytic leukaemia (AML) and lymphomas is one of the very few marine anticancer drugs studied in long-term clinical study. (21)

 

Acyclovir, which was synthetically known as Ara-A, was modeled based on sponge-derived spongothymidine or spongouridine. Ara-A is the first sponge-derived antiviral compound in the market. (22)

 

Polyketide Calyculin A (a selective inhibitor of protein phosphatase 1, isolated from sponge Discodermia calyx), Manoalide (a potent anti-inflammatory marine natural product and a direct inactivator of venom phospholipase A2), Okadaic acid, a potent inhibitor of protein phosphatases, especially protein phosphatases 1 and 2 respectively isolated from Luffariella variabilis and Halichondria okadai has reached the market undergoing from basic research to long phases of clinical study. (23) Saclike filter feeder tunicates have been reported to be an importent source in drug discovery.

 

Macrocyclic lactone ‘Bryostatin1’ from bryozoan sp. Bugula neritina, and soft coral compounds; diterpene glycoside ‘Eleutherobin’ and Pyrrole alkaloid ‘Lamellarin D’ anticancer (24) while, anti-inflammatory compound ‘OAS-100’ which is semi synthetic derivative of   pseudopterisone-A are the hope of new effective therapeutic agents.

 

Many studies of marine organisms are discipline, which endeavours to identify and decode the troubles regarding not only sustainable exploitation of marine life for human health and welfare but also for marine ecology. Study of marine organisms for their bioactive potential, being an important part of marine ecosystem, has picked up the rhythm in recent years with the growing recognition of their importance in human life. This interdisciplinary study of the life in the oceans ensures an exciting new frontier of scientific discovery and economic opportunity.

 

1.3.2 Marine plants:

Plant life is a relatively rare undersea. Most of the niche occupied by sub plants on land is actually occupied by macroscopic algae (Green algae)in the ocean, such as Sargassum and kelp, which are commonly known as seaweeds that create kelp forests. Some non algae plants such that eelgrass, Zos tera, and turtle grass, Thalassia etc. do survive in the sea are often found in shallow waters. All these non algae plants have adapted to the high salinity of the ocean environment. The intertidal zone is also a good place to find plant life in the sea, where mangroves or cordgrass or beach grass might grow. (1)

 

Green algae photosynthesize using the common carotenoids a- and b-Carotenes, and contain a range of relatively common xanthophylls such as Lutein. The most widespread sterols are Cholesterol, Brassicasterol, Sitosterol and their close relatives, although some rarer sterols such as Saringosterol have been characterised from certain classes of green algae25.

 

The red algae contain chlorophyll a and the characteristic pigment Chlorophyll d. glycogen (floridean starch), cellulosic microfibrils, 6-O-sulphated cellulose, extra-cellular and skeletal -D-mannan, mixed-linkage -D-xylans and proteoglycans, produce characteristic sulphated galactans, extracted by hot water and known commercially as agars and carrageenans. (26)

 

Brown algae contain a wide range of terpenoids, phenolics and meroterpenoids. The major secondary metabolite content of brown algae is represented by phenols and phenolic meroterpenoids, many of them sulfated and/or halogenated. The reserve polysaccharide, 13-linked -D-glucan (laminaran), involving branching and occasional termination of the short chains by glycoside formation with C-1 of D-mannitol. (27)

 

There are roughly 200 known species of marine golden algae and 500 of haptophytes, but the number of marine diatom species may be as high at 50,000, constituting the bulk of the phytoplankton at certain times of the year, and therefore of crucial importance to marine ecosystems.

 

A series of novel antibiotic agents have been isolated from dianoflagellates, antifungal agents from Ganbierdiscus toxicus and brevitoxins from Ptychodiscus brevis. Another toxin parvum is obtained from Prymnesium parvum. It has shown hemolytic, ichthyotoxic, antispasmodic and cytolytic effect on various animals. (28)

 

Fungi are found throughout a wide range of terrestrial and marine environments. Fungi are now considered part of the Eukaryote kingdom, and are characterised by the lack of a photosynthetic mechanism and by a mode of life which is saprophytic, parasitic or symbiotic. Many metabolites, such as Gliotoxin, have been isolated from both terrestrial and marine fungi. The most characteristic sterols of all fungi are Ergosterol and related ergostanes. Other steroids isolated include Fusidic acid, and the Gymnasterones from an ascomycete-sponge association. The polysaccharides that form the bulk of the solid matter in fungi are of many types (29), which include D-glucans, D-mannans, D-galactans, and chitin. The structures are linear or branched, contain other sugars as substituent groups, and may incorporate phosphate groups in the main core.

 

1.3.3 Marine animal:

Sponges are multicellular organisms and approximately 10,000 sponges have been described in the world and most of them live in marine waters. Sponges participate in large number of the isolations of natural products. A range of bioactive metabolites has been found in about 11 sponge genera. Three of these genera (Haliclona, Petrosia and Discodemia) produce powerful anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory agents, but their cultivation has not been studied. (30) The discovery of spongouridine, a potent tumor-inhibiting arabinosyl nucleoside in Caribbean sponge Cryptotethia crypta, focused attention on sponges as a source of biomedically important metabolites. (31) The identification of the pharmacophore led to the synthesis of a new class of arabinosyl nucleoside analogues, one of which is arabinosyl cytosine, which is converted into arabinosyl cytosine triphosphate and incorporated into cellular DNA where it inhibits DNA polymerase, is already in clinical use for the treatment of acute mylocytic leukemia and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.

 

Cnidaria (medusae, sea anemones, hydroids and corals)

Palytoxin, which is one of the most potent known toxins, is the product of palythoa species of the family zoanthidae. It is a useful tool for probing cellular recognition processes. (31)

 

Platyhelminthes (flukes, tapeworms and free-living flatworms):

These are the flatworms, characterised by a bilateral body plan and the complete absence of a digestive cavity. The majority of marine species belong to the class of planarians (turbellarians). These are mobile, carnivorous animals having no physical means of defence and relying entirely on substances absorbed or modified from the diet, or produced by symbiotic organisms.

 

The most studied genus is Amphiscolops. These worms are protected by Amphidinolides produced by symbiotic dinoflagellates and contain other dinoflagellate products such as Luteophanols. Other planarians feeding on ascidians have yielded alkaloids (e.g. Lepadins, Villatamines).

 

Annelida (true worms):

These are the segmented worms, having an alimentary canal. They include the polychaetes, oligochaetes (earthworms; mostly terrestrial), hirudineans (leeches; mostly freshwater), echiurians and Vestimentifera. They locomote by means of bristles which can be irritant or venomous. The best-known genus among the echiurians is the spoon worm Bonellia viridis, most studied on account of its tetrapyrrole pigment Bonellin which also plays a role in inducing sexual differentiation in the larva.

 

Their carotenoid pigments appear to be mainstream components such as Astaxanthin, derived dietetically. Other annelid pigments are anthracenes and anthraquinones, such as Hallachrome. Annelids also contain ruminated phenols (e.g. 2, 6-Dibromophenol) and derived aromatics such as Thelepin, which protect them against bacteria.Nereistoxin is a simple aminodithiolane with powerful cytotoxic properties produced by Lumbriconereis sp. Some annelids contain large amounts of Hypotaurine and Thiotaurine. (32)

 

Nemerteans (ribbon-worms):

The ribbon-worms have yielded the powerful nicotinic receptor agonist Anabaseine, used as venom by the worm, together with several related oligopyridines. Toxins of the tetrodotoxin series are also found in the tissues, and also some peptide toxins, which have only been investigated fully for one species, Cerebratulus lacteus. (33) The unsegmented phoronidian worms Phoronopsis have yielded antibacterial bromophenols like those obtained from the annelids.

 

These colonial organisms are entirely aquatic and mostly marine.  A number of common mono-, di- and triterpenes (e.g. Cuminol, Neoabietic acid, Ursolic acid or a stereoisomer) were reported from Conopeum sp. The single diterpenoid Murrayanolide that has been obtained apart from this work has a unique skeleton which implies that many more unusual terpenoids may exist on other bryozoans.

 

The most numerous metabolites from bryozoans are defence chemicals, which comprise numerous alkaloids, and the Bryostatins, an important series of polyether polyketide toxins with anticancer properties, some of which have also been found in other marine organisms. The ultimate source of these may be Candidatus bacteria. (16)

 

Echinodermata:

This is the largest phylum of exclusively marine animals, with about 7000 species known.

 

Physiologically active saponins have been studied extensively from sea stars and sea cucumbers, but not as useful as drugs because of their tendency to cause cell lysis. Even then, Glycosylated ceramides and saponins continue to be the major classes of metabolites identified in echinoderms. A full account of the isolation and characterization of hedathiosulphonic acids A and B, isolated from a deep-sea urchin Echinocardium cordatum (34-35), has been reported.

 

Ten new saponins, certonardosides A–J were isolated from the starfish Certonardoa semiregularis collected off the Coast of Komun Island, Korea. (36) All compounds were evaluated for a range of antiviral properties towards HIV, herpes simplex (HSV), Coxsachie (CoxB), encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) and vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), but only mild potency was observed for certonardosides-I and certonardosides-J. Linckosides A and B, neuritogenic steroidal glycosides, were reported from an Okinawan collection of the starfish Linckia laevigata. (37)

 

 

 

 

Table: 1.1 Marine  based active components:

Activity

Active compound

Source

Uses

Antimicrobial

Cephalosporin

Cephalosporium acremonium

Antibiotic drug (40)

 Zonarol and Isozonarol

Dictyopteris zonaroides

Antimicrobial(4)

Prepacifenol

Laurencia Pacifica

Antimicrobial(5)

Istamycins

Streptomyces tenjimariensis.

Antibiotics(40)

 

Curcuphenol

Didiscus oxeata

Antifungal(40)

Antiviral

Arabinosyl nucleosides

Tethya crypta

Antiviral properties(22)

Didemnins

Trididemnum solidum

Antiviral Antineoplastic(41)

Avarol and Avarone

Disidea avara

Antiinflammatory,

Immunomodulator(42)

Patellazole B

Lissoclinum patella

Against herpes  simplex viruses(43)

Eudistomin

Eudistoma olivaceum

Antiviral(22)

Cytotoxic

Bryostatins

Bugula neritina

Anti leukaemic(16)

Didemnin B

Trididemnum solidum

Antitumor inbreast, ovarian, cervical, myeloma, and glioblastoma and lung cancers(44-46)

Cytarabine

Caribbean sponge

Acute granulocytic leukemia, acute myclogenous leukemia(5)

Dolastatin

Dolabella auricularia

Cell cycle arrest in metaphase,liver cancers,solid tumours and leukemia (47-48)

Ecteinascidin

Ecteinascidia turbinata

Soft tissue sarcoma (STS), ovarian, and breast cancer(49-50)

Antiinflammatory

Indoles

Rivularia firma

anti- oedema(51)

Manoalide

Luffariella variabilis

Phospholipase A2 Inhibitor(52)

Pseudopterosins

Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae

Potent anti-inflammatory and analgesic agents(52)

 

Antiparasitic

Kainic acid

Digenea Simplex

In ascariasis(5)

Bengamide

Zoanthid (sponges)

Anti-nthelmintic(53-54)

Cucumechinoside

Sea cucumber

Antiprotozoal(55)

Anticoagulant

Galactan

Iridae laminarioides(red alga)

Anticoagulant(4)

Carrageenan

Eucheuma cottoni

anti-thrombic(54)

Fucoidan

Fucus vesiculosus

Inhibition of thrombin(55)

                                    

 

Table: 1.2Marketed formulation of marine drug  molecules:

S.NO.

DRUG MOLECULE

ACTIVITY

MARKETED FORMULATION                   

COMPANY

1.

    Cytarabine

Antineoplastic agent

 

   

Arasid

Intas

Cytabin

Zy-cadila

Depocyt (cytarabine  liposome injection)

Enzon pharmaceutical

Cybin-pf

Vhb(cytocare)

Cytarine

Dabur

2.

Fludarabine

Antineoplastic agent     

Fludara

 

Fludura

 

3. 

Antiangiogenic

    

Neovastat(ae-941)

 

4.

Ara-a

Antiviral agent

Enfamil lipiltm

Mead Johnson  nutritionals    

Similac advance

Ross

5.

 Cephalosporin

 

 

 

(a)cefpodoxie

Antimicrobial agent

Cefoprox

 Cipla

(b) cefuroxime

Antimicrobial agent

Furoxil

Torrent

6.

Pseudopterosins

Antiinflammatory agent        

Resilience®

Estée Lauder 


 

Marine vertebrate animal (Fishes):

Various fish species are used to extract fish oil, rich in omega-3 fatty acids, which are used in the preparation of various kinds of drugs for the remedies of human beings, such as arthritis and many others. Throughout the world about 500 species of fish are considered toxic. A new class of water-soluble broad-spectrum antibiotics, squalamines has been isolated from the stomach extracts of dogfish shark, Squalus acanthias. (38-39)

 

Relatively few of the animals are implicated in poisoning of human. These for the most part cause trouble on ingestion like polar bear. And most of animals are neuroactive and gastro-intestinally active. (32)

 

1.4 Biologically active compounds from marine sources:

The newer and potent drug molecules derived from the wide spectrum of marine organisms are summarized in Table 1.1.

 

1.5  FUTURE PROSPECT:

All research is oriented toward the study of cellular and molecular mechanisms of drug action. Studies include the investigation of drug as well as new classes of natural products from marine sources. These marine natural products are purified and identified by collaborators at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography. Some of these agents are potent inactivators of phospholipase A2 and interfere with cellular lysis, chemotactic responses, cellular recognition and inflammatory processes. The phospholipase A2 inactivators have been shown to be potent phorbol ester antagonists and to block tumor promotion and inflammation.

 

Through collaborative arrangements with participants in bio-organic chemistry, established a unique program that investigates the pharmacological properties of potent metabolites from colonial invertebrates and algae. Many investigations have also stimulated considerable basic research on ligand reactions with drug receptors, drug targeting and molecular modeling that evolved directly from our mechanism of action studies.

 

We have learned much from the life on land, but it is now time to access the wealth of information in the sea. The

issue is not simply the discovery of new drugs, but harvesting the metabolic, genetic and physiological information inherent in the evolution of lower species of life. So many companies are steerned eyes’ on marine drug  molecules are summarized in  Table: 1.2.

    

1.6 CONCLUSION:

The greater part of the earth surface is covered by seas and ocean which contains about 500000 species of marine organisms. Marine life is vast resources of food, medicine and raw materials. Majority of the marine natural products have been isolated from sponges, coelenterates (sea whips, sea fans and soft corals), tunicates, opisthobranch molluscs (nudibranchs, sea hares, etc.), echinoderms (starfish, sea cucumbers, etc.) and bryozoans (moss animals) and a wide variety of marine microorganisms in their tissues.

 

Many of these compounds have shown pronounced biological activity such as antimicrobial, antiviral, Cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antiparasitic, anticoagulants, antibiotic agents and anticoagulants.

 

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Received on 21.10.2011       Modified on 20.11.2011

Accepted on 05.03.2012      © RJPT All right reserved

Research J. Pharm. and Tech. 5(10): October 2012; Page 1253-1259