INTRODUCTION:

Human health and food security are becoming increasingly important due to climate change, population growth and aging, and an increase in the incidence of metabolic diseases. In particular, diabetes, obesity, and other metabolic disorders have reached global epidemic proportions at present^1-4. Food plays an important role in the treatment and prevention of the above disorders. For example, the use of functional foods improves general well-being and helps reduce the risk of developing these conditions and their treatment⁵.

These can include both conventional foods with some health benefits, or foods that enriched with certain biological active compounds naturally or processed technologically⁶. Now, people receive 30 to 70% of their daily energy from grains (corn). This shows that innovative technologies in the use of grain and functional ingredients based on quinoa grain play an extremely important role in obtaining components for the production of food for various purposes^7-9.

Nowadays, Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is attracting more and more attention; it has many varieties and is cultivated in many countries¹⁰. Quinoa is a grain-like food that has been a food source for Central and South American people for thousands of years. It plays an increasing role in the human diet. Quinoa has been named as “one of the 21^st century seeds” due to resistance to extreme environmental conditions as well as its biological properties. Quinoa contains many biologically active substances (BAS), including saponins¹¹, phytosterols, phytoecdysteroids, phenolic compounds and biologically active peptides, in addition to a high content of protein, lipids, fiber, vitamins and minerals and a balanced amino acid profile. They can have a number of properties that normalize metabolic, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal disorders and other conditions^12-14.

Figure 1: Quinoa varieties.

PROTEINS:

The amount and quality of protein in quinoa grains tends to be higher than that of other cereals. However, it is characterized by a lack of gluten and high digestibility. Quinoa has a higher total protein content (12.9% to 16.5%) than barley (10.8% to 11.0%), oats (11.6%), rice (7.5% up to 9.1%) and corn (from 10.2% to 13.4%), and is similar in total protein content to wheat (from 14.3% to 15.4%)^15-18.

Quinoa proteins are composed primarily of globulin and albumin. They have almost no prolamins, which are the main proteins in many grains. Prolamins such as wheat gliadin, rye sekalin, and barley hordein (collectively referred to as “gluten”) induce autoimmune responses in celiac patients^19,20.

On the other hand, there are results showing that quinoa grains are a safe, gluten-free substitute for grain protein²¹. Quinoa protein consists of 37% globulin type 11S, which is a source of leucine, isoleucine and phenylalanine and tyrosine and contains all essential amino acids in adequate quantities^15,16,22,23. The essential amino acid profile of quinoa is equivalent to casein and whole protein from cow's milk, and its lysine content is twice that of wheat²⁴. In addition, quinoa protein is characterized by high digestibility (91.6%), and after heat treatment it increases to 95.3%²⁵. Such high digestibility may be associated with the low content of trypsin inhibitors in this protein (from 1.36 to 5.04 TIU/mg)²².

STEROIDS:

Quinoa grains contain sterols at concentrations up to 118 mg/100g seed. The main sterols are β-sitosterol, campesterol, brassicasterol, and stigmasterol²⁶. It was found in a study that quinoa seeds contain β-sitosterol (63.7mg/100g), campesterol (15.6mg/100g) and stigmasterol (3.2mg/100g), and the content of these sterols are higher than that of barley, rye, millet and corn^27-29.

Phytosterols are lipophilic compounds structurally similar to cholesterol. There is a number of epidemiological data showing that phytosterols have a expressed hypocholesterolemic effect in humans³⁰. The mechanism of the effect is explained by the competition of intestinal absorption of cholesterol and, possibly, by a decrease in the production of atherogenic lipoprotein in the liver and intestines³¹. In addition, phytosterols exhibit anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-tumor effects³⁰.

Phytoecdysteroids:

The phytoecdysteroid content in quinoa grains is the highest among food agricultural crops. Polyhydroxylated steroids, which are structurally related to insect moulting hormones, have a wide range of biological activities³².

A study shows that quinoa contains 138 to 570 μg/g of phytoecdysteroids³³. At least 13 individual phytoecdysteroids were isolated from quinoa grains, of which 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) accounts for 62% to 90% of their total amount. In addition to 20E, the largest proportion of phytoecdysteroids in quinoa is makisterone A, 24-epi-makisterone A, and 24 (28)-dehydromakisterone A^33-37. Reviews provide data on the biological activity of phytoecdysteroids (antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, hypocholesterolemic, wound healing, antidepressant and antioxidant properties^32,38,39. The results reported in the studies indicate that phytoecdysteroids are safe when taken orally in humans and do not cause side effects, unlike hormonal supplements. They have extremely low toxicity (LD50 6.4g/kg after intraperitoneal injection; LD50 9 g/kg after oral administration)³². Notably, 20HE enhances growth rate and physical endurance in mammals, and also promotes uterine weight gain in ovariectomized rats^40,41.

Recent studies on the biological effects of 20HE have focused on its potential in the treatment or prevention of metabolic syndrome and postmenopausal disorders. Kizel-sztein et al. (2009) demonstrated that 20HE (10 mg/kg for 13 weeks) reduced obesity by 41%, increased insulin sensitivity and decreased blood glucose levels in obese and hyperglycemic mice (C57Bl/6J) caused by a high-fat diet^42,43. A study shows that ingestion of 20E in mice on a high-fat diet led to a decrease in body weight, increased insulin sensitivity, and decreased lipid accumulation in muscles⁴⁴. Studies demonstrated that administration of 20E (18 to 121 mg/day/animal for 12 weeks) prevented an increase in adipose tissue and loss of bone density, reduced hot flashes and improved skin thickness in ovariectomized rats in a standard model for research in postmenopausal women^41,45-47. In addition, 20E can affect the expression of mammalian genes, leading to the activation of the P13K/Akt anabolic pathway and suppression of the hepatic gluconeogenesis pathway^39,48,49.

Phenols:

Phenolic compounds are a class of compounds consisting of hydroxyl group (s) bonded to at least one aromatic ring. They have high chemical stability and pronounced antioxidant activity⁵⁰. Medicinal plan materials in most cases accumulate this group of biologically active substances^51-54. They also have antitumor, hypoglycemic, hypolipedimic and cardioprotective activity^55-58.

Several phenolic acids have been identified in the seeds and leaves of quinoa, including derivatives of hydroxycinnamic acid and hydrobenzoic acid. Distinct phenolic acids were found in quinoa seeds at concentrations up to 251.5 μg/g dry weight⁵⁹. Flavonoid glycosides are the most abundant phenolic compounds found in quinoa seeds and leaves. It was found that free phenolic compounds are present in quinoa in the range of 2.746-3.803 g/kg, while bound phenolic compounds are present in the concentration range of 0.139 to 0.164 g/kg⁶⁰.

CONCLUSION:

Quinoa is a grain with high nutritional value and unique phytochemical composition. Products derived from quinoa and their individual chemical constituents have a variety of biologically active properties. Further studies of this plant will allow us to assess its advantages over other cereals and understand the mechanism of action of its constituent components.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:

None.

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTIONS:

All authors contributed equally to this work.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

The study was financially supported by the Russian Science Foundation, grant No. 19-16-00107 “New functional food ingredients of adaptogenic action for the enhancement of working capability and cognitive potential of human organism”.

REFERENCES:

1. Nguyen, Thang, David CW Lau. The obesity epidemic and its impact on hypertension. Canadian Journal of Cardiology. 2007;41(3):326-333.

2. Mulualem T, Mekbib F, Hussein S, Gebre E. Phenotypic Variability and Evaluation of Yam (Dioscorea spp.) Landraces from Southwest Ethiopia by Multivariate Analysis. Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2019; 11(2): 54-64.

3. Hasan A, Hussain Z. Climate Change and its Impact on Food Security. Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. 2020; 11(1): 91-96.

4. Zimmet PZ, Magliano DJ, Herman WH, Shaw JE. Diabetes: a 21^st century challenge. The lancet Diabetes and endocrinology. 2014; 2(1): 56-64.

5. Thakur S, Srivastava N. Nutraceuticals: A Review. Asian Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Science. 2016; 6(2): 85-94.

6. Bigliardi B, Galati F. Innovation trends in the food industry: the case of functional foods. Trends in Food Sci Technol. 2013;31(2):118-129.

7. Poutanen K, Sozer N, Della Valle G. How can technology help to deliver more of grain in cereal foods for a healthy diet? Journal of Cereal Science. 2014; 59(3): 327-336.

8. Jain A, Rastogi D, Chanana B. Corn-A Vital Crop for Our Economy. Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. 2016; 7(3): 185-192.

9. Patanwala FT, Hariramani KH, Valecha, SM. Analysis of Specific Parameters of Selected Food Products. Asian Journal of Research in Chemistry. 2016; 9(8): 359-365.

10. Quinoa plant Seeds-Chenopodium quinoa-Brightest Brilliant Rainbow URL: https://www.caribbeangardenseed.com/products/quinoa-plant-seeds-chenopodium-quinoa-brightest-brilliant-rainbow-hot-pink-to-royal-burgundy-red-orange-yellow-white-green

11. Arya V, Thakur R. Plant Saponins–A Recent Update. Asian Journal of Research in Chemistry. 2013; 6(9): 871-876.

12. Sidorova YS, Petrov NA, Shipelin VA, Mazo VK. Spinach and quinoa-prospective food sources of biologically active substances. Voprosy Pitaniia. 2020; 89(2): 100-106.

13. Choudhary S, Mathur P. Assessment of protective role of quinoa against sodium fluoride induced skeletal deformities in mice fetuses. Research J. Pharm. and Tech. 2020; 13(5): 2129-2134.

14. James LEA. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): composition, chemistry, nutritional, and functional properties. Advances in food and nutrition research. 2009; 58: 1-31.

15. Repo-Carrasco R, Espinoza C, Jacobsen SE. Nutritional value and use of the Andean crops quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and kañiwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule). Food reviews international. 2003; 19: 179-189.

16. Abugoch James LE. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): composition, chemistry, nutritional and functional properties. Advances in food and nutrition research. 2009; 58: 1-31.

17. Jancurov´a M, Minarovicov´a L, Dandar A. Quinoa–a review. Czech journal food science. 2009; 27: 71-79.

18. Peiretti PG, Gai F, Tassone S. Fatty acid proﬁle and nutritive value of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) seeds and plants at different growth stages. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2013; 183(1-2): 56-61.

19. Zevallos VF, Ellis HJ, Suligoj T, Herencia LI, Ciclitira PJ. Variable activation of immune response by quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) prolamins in celiac disease. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2012; 96: 337-344.

20. Biesiekierski JR, Muir JG, Gibson PR. Is gluten a cause of gastrointestinal symptoms in people without celiac disease? Current allergy and asthma reports. 2013; 13: 631-638.

21. Zevallos VF, Herencia LI, Chang F, Donnelly S, Ellis HJ, Ciclitira PJ. Gastrointestinal effects of eating quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in celiac patients. American journal of gastroenterology. 2014; 109: 270-278.

22. Vega-Galvez A, Miranda M, Vergara J, Uribe E, Puente L, Martinez EA. 2010. Nutrition facts and functional potential of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), an ancient Andean grain: a review. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2010; 90: 2541-2547.

23. Miranda M, Vega-Galvez A, Quispe-Fuentes I, Rodriguez MJ, Maureira H, Martinez EA. Nutritional aspects of six quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) ecotypes from three geographical areas of Chile. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research. 2012; 72(2): 175-181.

24. Fairweather-Tait SS, Southon S, Caballero B. Quinoa. Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition. Amsterdam: Academic Press. 2003.

25. Ruales J, De Grijalva Y, Lopez-Jaramillo P, Nair BM. The nutritional quality of infant food from quinoa and its effect on the plasma level of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in undernourished children. International journal of food sciences and nutrition. 2002; 53: 143-154.

26. Villacr´es E, P´astor G, Quelal MB, Zambrano I, Morales SH. Effect of processing on the content of fatty acids, tocopherols and sterols in the oils of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd), lupine (Lupinus mutablis Sweet), amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus L.) and sangorache (Amaranthus quitensis L.). Global advanced research journal of food science and technology. 2013; 2(4): 44-53.

27. Ryan E, Galvin K, O’Connor TP, Maguire AR, O’Brien NM. Phytosterol, squalene, tocopherol content and fatty acid proﬁle of selected seeds, grains, and legumes. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 2007; 62: 85-91.

28. Yadav R, Yadav N, Kharya MD. Steroid Chemistry and Steroid Hormone Action: A Review. Asian J. Research Chem. 2014; 7(11): 964-969.

29. Kolekar SM, Jain BU, Kondawarkar MS. A Review on Steroids and Terpenoids (Stereochemistry, Structural Elucidation, Isolation of Steroids and Terpenoids). Res. J. Pharma. Dosage Forms and Tech. 2019; 11(2): 126-130.

30. Marangoni F, Poli A. Phytosterols and cardiovascular health. Pharmacological Research. 2010; 61: 193-199.

31. Ho SS, Pal S. Margarine phytosterols decrease the secretion of atherogenic lipoproteins from HepG2 liver and Caco2 intestinal cells. Atherosclerosis. 2005; 182(1): 29-36.

32. Dinan L. The Karlson Lecture. Phytoecdysteroids: what use are they? Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology: Published in Collaboration with the Entomological Society of America. 2009; 72(3): 126-141.

33. Graf BL, Rojo LE, Delatorre-Herrera J, Poulev A, Calﬁo C, Raskin I. Phytoecdysteroids and ﬂavonoid glycosides among Chilean and commercial sources of Chenopodium quinoa: variation and correlation to physicochemical characteristics. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2016; 96(2): 633-643.

34. Zhu N, Kikuzaki H, Vastano BC, Nakatani N, Karwe MV, Rosen RT, Ho CT. Ecdysteroids of quinoa seeds (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 2001; 49(5): 2576-2578.

35. Kumpun S, Maria A, Crouzet S, Evrard-Todeschi N, Girault J-P, Lafont R. Ecdysteroids from Chenopodium quinoa Willd., an ancient Andean crop of high nutritional value. Food Chemistry. 2011; 125(4): 1226-1234.

36. Graf BL, Poulev A, Kuhn P, Grace M, Lila MA, Raskin I. Quinoa seeds leach phytochemicals and other compounds with anti-diabetic properties. Food Chemistry. 2014; 163: 178-185.

37. Graf BL, Cheng DM, Esposito D, Shertel T, Poulev A, Plundrich N, Itenberg D, Dayan N, Lila MA, Raskin I. Compounds leached from quinoa seeds inhibit matrix metalloproteinase activity and intracellular reactive oxygen species. International Journal of Cosmetic Science. 2015; 37(2): 212-221.

38. Lafont R, Dinan L. Practical uses for ecdysteroids in mammals including humans:an update. Journal of Insect Science.2003;3(7):1-30.

39. Dinan L, Lafont R. Effects and applications of arthropod steroid hormones (ecdysteroids) in mammals. Journal of Endocrinology. 2006; 191: 1-8.

40. Gorelick-Feldman J, MacLean D, Ilic N, Poulev A, Lila MA, Cheng D, Raskin I. Phytoecdysteroids increase protein synthesis in skeletal muscle cells. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 2008; 56(10): 3532-3537.

41. Seidlova-Wuttke D, Christel D, Kapur P, Nguyen BT, Jarry H, Wuttke W. Beta-ecdysone has bone protective but no estrogenic effects in ovariectomized rats. Phytomedicine. 2010; 17(11): 884-889.

42. Foucault AS, Even P, Lafont R, Dioh W, Veillet S, Tome D, Huneau JF, Herman WH, Quignard-Boulange A. Quinoa extract enriched in 20-hydroxyecdysone affects energy homeostasis and intestinal fat absorption in mice fed a high-fat diet. Physiology and Behavior. 2014; 128: 226-231.

43. Foucault AS, Mathe V, Lafont R, Even P, Dioh W, Veillet S, Tome D, Huneau JF, Hermier D, Quignard-Boulange A. Quinoa extract enriched in 20-hydroxyecdysone protects mice from diet-induced obesity and modulates adipokines expression. Obesity. 2011; 20: 270-277.

44. Wang ZQ, Yu Y, Zhang XH, Ribnicky D, Cefalu WT. Ecdysterone enhances muscle insulin signaling by modulating acylcarnitine proﬁle and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation complexes in mice fed a high-fat diet. Diabetes. 2011; 1-10.

45. Seidlova-Wuttke D, Christel D, Kapur P, Nguyen BT, Jarry H, Wuttke W. Beta-ecdysone has bone protective but no estrogenic effects in ovariectomized rats. Phytomedicine. 2010; 17(11): 884-889.

46. Seidlova-Wuttke D, Ehrhardt C, Wuttke W. Metabolic effects of 20-OH-ecdysone in ovariectomized rats. The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 2010; 119(3-5): 121-126.

47. Ehrhardt C, Wessels JT, Wuttke W, Seidlova-Wuttke D. The effects of 20-hydroxyecdysone and 17ß-estradiol on the skin of ovariectomized rats. Menopause. 2011; 18(3): 323-327.

48. Gorelick-Feldman J, Cohick W, Raskin I. Ecdysteroids elicit a rapid Ca2+ ﬂux leading to Akt activation and increased protein synthesis in skeletal muscle cells. Steroids. 2010; 75: 632-637.

49. Kizelsztein P, Govorko D, Komarnytsky S, Evans A, Wang Z, Cefalu WT, Raskin I. 20-Hydroxyecdysone decreases weight and hyperglycemia in a diet-induced obesity mice model. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2009; 296(3): E433-E439.

50. Harborne JB, Williams CA. Advances in ﬂavonoid research since 1992. Phytochemistry. 2000; 55: 481-504.

51. Vatnikov Y, Shabunin S, Karamyan A, Kulikov E, Sachivkina N, Stepanishin V, Vasilieva E, Bobkova N, Lucay V, Avdotin V, Zenchenkova A, Rudenko P, Rudenko A. Antimicrobial activity of Hypericum perforatum L. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2020; 12: 723-730.

52. Rub RA, Mukadam A, Pinjari J, Nathani A, Sagri A. Pharmacognostic and Phytochemical Evaluation of Quirivelia frutescens (Apocynaceae). Asian J. Research Chem. 2009; 2(4): 509-512.

53. Vatnikov Y, Rudenko P, Shopinskaya M, Tokar A, Zhilkina V, Bokov D, Bobkova N, Sachivkina N, Lenchenko E, Karamyan A, Kulikov E, Shabunin S. Effectiveness of biologically active substances from Hypericum perforatum L. in the complex treatment of purulent wounds. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2020 4(12): 1108-1117.

54. Zhilkina V, Sachivkina NP, Ibragimova AN, Kovaleva TY, Molchanova MA, Radeva DV. Methods for the identification and quantitative analysis of biologically active substances from vitamin plants raw material. FEBS Open Bio. 2019; 9(S1): 285-286.

55. Da-Silva WS, Harney JW, Kim BW, Li JM, Bianco SDC, Crescenzi A, Christoffolete MA, Huang SA, Bianco AC. The small polyphenolic molecule kaempferol increases cellular energy expenditure and thyroid hormone activation. Diabetes. 2007; 56: 767-776.

56. Zhang X, Li X, Fang H, Guo F, Li F, Chen A, Huang S. Flavonoids as Inducers of White Adipose Tissue Browning and Thermogenesis: Signalling Pathways and Molecular Triggers. Nutrition and metabolism. 2019; 16(1): 47.

57. Kelly GS. Quercetin: monograph. Alternative Medicine Review. 2011; 16(2): 172-194.

58. Jeong SM, Kang MJ, Choi HN, Kim JH, Kim JI. Quercetin ameliorates hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia and improves antioxidant status in type 2 diabetic db/db mice. Nutrition Research and Practice. 2012; 6(3): 201-207.

59. Gorinstein S, Lojek A, Ciz M, Pawelzik E, Delgado-Licon E, Medina OJ, Moreno M, Salas IA, Goshev I. Comparison of composition and antioxidant capacity of some cereals and pseudocereals. International journal of food science and technology. 2008; 43: 629-637.

60. Gomez-Caravaca AM, Segura-Carretero A, Fernandez-Gutierrez A, Caboni MF. Simultaneous determination of phenolic compounds and saponins in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) by a liquid chromatography-diode array detection-electrospray ionization-time-of-ﬂight mass spectrometry methodology. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 2011; 59: 10815-10825.

Received on 25.10.2020 Modified on 30.01.2021

Research J. Pharm. and Tech 2021; 14(11):5781-5784.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2021.01005