INTRODUCTION:

The utilization of treated wastewater in agricultural practices presents a promising approach to mitigate the loss of water resources attributed to climate change and heightened water demand resulting from human activities¹. However, the incorporation of treated wastewater into agricultural practices requires improvements in wastewater treatment methods to improve the overall quality of the treated water. It is imperative to prioritize this measure in order to mitigate the possibility of environmental contamination and protect human well-being from any corresponding hazards. The fundamental principles underlying the design of wastewater treatment plants revolve around the sequential arrangement of carefully chosen processes^2,3, taking into account the characteristics and quality of the wastewater and effluent, as well as potential future limitations, overall costs, and land availability.

In addition, the conventional sequence of a treatment process includes primary, secondary, and tertiary treatments, as well as sludge treatment and stabilization. Furthermore, it involves the final disposal or potential reuse of treatment technologies for residual materials^4,5.

Conventional wastewater treatment plants utilize a combination of physical, chemical, and biological processes to reduce the concentrations of solids as well as diverse organic and inorganic contaminants. These procedures encompass a variety of techniques, such as sedimentation and flotation, to efficiently remove both inorganic and organic particulate matter, including oil and grease^6,7. Microbial consortia present in sewage sludge facilitate the oxidation and nitrification of organic materials through biological processes. Furthermore, the integration of traditional nitrification and denitrification processes with anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) is a viable approach for achieving environmentally sustainable nitrogen removal while simultaneously reducing energy consumption and decreasing the adverse effects of global warming^8,9. In recent times, there has been a growing interest in incorporating micro-algae, encompassing eukaryotic algae and cyanobacteria, into conventional methods of wastewater treatment, it is worth noting that microalgae have environmentally sustainable characteristics as they have the ability to utilize both organic and inorganic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus for their growth, hence facilitating a reduction in the concentration of these chemical compounds ^10,11.

One prominent application of wastewater treatment is its valorizationin the agricultural sector,irrigation of green spaces and sports grounds, specifically in low-income countries and dry or semi-arid regions of high-income countries. Irrigated lands are typically located in proximity to urban centers where wastewater is generated. Globally, a total of more than 20 million hectares of agricultural land are currently being irrigated with either treated or untreated wastewater. This prevailing practice is anticipated to witness further growth in the coming years due to various factors, such as escalating urbanization and the scarcity of water resources. Furthermore, a significant number of economically disadvantaged individuals residing in metropolitan areas depend on agricultural labor as a means of generating income, securing employment opportunities, and ensuring access to food. In situations where access to freshwater is limited or economically unfeasible and where wastewater treatment systems are unable to cope with the demands of growing metropolitan areas, farmers often find themselves compelled to utilize water sources that are heavily contaminated^12–14. As a result, the utilization of untreated wastewater, particularly in nations with low- or middle-income levels, has detrimental effects on both the environment and human well-being. The practice of wastewater irrigation(WWI)by untreated wastewater has been found to result in the contamination of agricultural land and crops with salt, harmful metals, and a range of chemical pollutants. The primary human health consequences are attributed to microbiological hazards arising from pathogens usually present in untreated or inadequately treated wastewater and the presence of heavy metals¹⁵. Asirifi et al. (2023) emphasized the significance of wastewater irrigation and its effects on soil and plant characteristics. The utilization of treated wastewater in agricultural practices holds considerable potential for water conservation and economic advantages. However, it is imperative to confront many obstacles pertaining to water quality, public perception, infrastructure, and regulatory frameworks in order to guarantee the secure and enduring adoption of this approach^16,17.

Morocco, situated in North Africa and bordering the Mediterranean basin, faces a significant water scarcity issue in one of the world's most water-scarce locations. The current situation in Morocco is characterized by the presence of water stress, a phenomenon that is projected to intensify due to factors such as population expansion, economic development, and the influence of climate change on the region's semi-arid climate. Indeed, it is anticipated that the intensification of drought periods will occur as a consequence of reduced precipitation and increased temperatures. Consequently, it is anticipated that the renewable internal freshwater resources, which presently fall below the critical water stress threshold of less than 600 m3 per year per capita, will see a further decline. The pressure on water resources is intensified by the elevated rate of wastewater discharge into the natural environment, despite the implementation of measures to improve wastewater treatment in urban areas as part of the National Shared Sanitation Program (PNAM). The rate of depollution was found to surpass 45% as a result of the successful deployment of 123 wastewater treatment facilities. These plants mostly utilized natural and aerated ponds, activated sludge, and trickling filters as their chosen treatment technologies. However, the PNAM has given precedence to urban sanitation over rural sanitation,leading to facilities that meet the Discharge Limit Value. Hence, when selecting customized treatment technologies for remote rural locations, it is imperative to evaluate their technical and economical capabilities ^18,19.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

The search for scientific articles related to the themes of our article in the following databases: The Moroccan Institute of Scientific and Technical Information (IMIST), operating under the National Centre for Research in Science and Technology in Morocco, offers access to various scholarly databases such as Scopus, Springer, ScienceDirect, and Web of Sciences through its e-resources platform. These databases are regularly updated to include global research findings, enabling Moroccan researchers to stay informed and gain valuable insights for their investigations on the subject matter ^20–22. This study is grounded in the utilization of the subsequent keywords: Wastewater, Wastewater treatment, Water reuse, Agricultural irrigation; and the consult of Ministries of Water and the Environment official websites. Afterward, the articles are analyzed, and the results are compared.

RESULTS:

Water resources in Morocco:

Surface water resources:

Surface water resources throughout Morocco are estimated, in an average year, at nearly 18 billion m3, varying from 3 billion to 48 billion m3, depending on the year. The hydrological regime of all the basins is characterized by considerable inter- and intra-annual variability, with alternating wet and dry periods interspersed with years of high-water levels or severe drought ²³.

Groundwater resources:

In Morocco, groundwater is a strategic resource. According to the Ministry of Equipment and Water in (2023),it accounts for around 20% of the country's potential water resources. Of the 130 aquifers, 32 are deep and 98 are superficial. Based on current knowledge, the exploitable potential of groundwater resources is around 3.9 billion m3, with a minimum of 22 million m3/year recorded in the Sakia El Hamra and Oued Eddahab basins and a maximum of 1.11 billion m3/year in the Sebou basin²³.

Hydraulic infrastructures for water mobilization:

Surface water:

Morocco currently has a portfolio of 145 large dams with an estimated storage capacity of 18.67 billion m3 and 15 structuring dams under construction with a total storage capacity of 3.4 billion m3, which will bring storage capacity to 22 billion m3. This hydraulic heritage has been reinforced by other large dams ²³.

Liquid Sanitation:

Local authorities in Morocco delegate the management of liquid wastewater treatment to the Moroccan National Office for Drinking Water and Electricity (ONEE) as well as to it autonomous board,who work in the field of liquid sanitation with the aim of preserving resources and improving the health of the population, in line with a vision of integrated management of the water cycle. In 2021 the Office provides sanitation services in 150 towns and cities with a total population of 6 million.²⁴

The number of wastewater treatment plants in Morocco increased from 1 in 2003 to 167 in 2023 (Figure 1). This growth in the number of wastewater treatment plants is due to Morocco's strategy of treating and reusing wastewater in various fields and to the fact that the rate of wastewater production in Morocco has increased rapidly from 48 Mm3 in 1960 to 900 Mm3 in 2020, due to population growth and the growing number of factories and industrial units generating a large volume of wastewater and industrial discharges.

To assess the viability of new wastewater treatment technologies in Morocco, official information about completed (in operation) and planned treatment plants is essential (Figure 2). To achieve this, the PWENO database was consulted, and 49 projects (13 finished and 36 in progress) across several cities were assembled (Figure 2a). The primary interpretive criteria were (i) population as a proxy for controlled wastewater volume and (ii) treatment method used (Figure 2b). Larger and medium-sized cities, including Casablanca (2.95 million residents), Tangier (1.97 million), Rabat (0.32 million), Tétouan (0.32 million), and even Nador (0.16 million), choose to employ active sludge. Small and medium-sized cities like Meknès (0.63 million), Berrechid (0.14 million), Taourit (0.10 million), and Sidi Slimane (0.09 million) were mostly characterized by lagooning. The mild climate in most coastal and central cities, the variability in SS, the relatively lower cost, and the greater land availability for wetlands all served to justify the preferred use of active sludge and lagooning²⁵. Bacterial beds were typically used in medium-sized towns in mountainous regions with mild winters. Only six cities had tertiary therapy in place, but it will soon be implemented in bigger towns like Rabat and Marrakech, even if the anticipated treatment volume is still relatively small. While this is going on, the majority of the new plants that the PWENO anticipates will continue to use secondary treatment through lagooning with only some forced aeration ²⁶.

Figure 1: Growth in the number of WWTPs and Statistics, forecasts for wastewater production in Morocco ^24,27

Reuse of treated wastewater in Morocco:

To date, 46 organized and controlled reuse projects have been completed or are underway nationwide for various uses (green spaces, golf courses and agriculture).The volume of purified wastewater mobilized in 2019 for reuse is around 65 Mm3, of which almost 51% is for watering golf courses and green spaces and 17% is for industry (OCP). Following the completion of ongoing projects, the volume of treated wastewater mobilized reached 100 m3/year in 2021.²³

Several studies in Morocco have examined the utilization of untreated wastewater for agricultural purposes. These studies have demonstrated that several types of crops, including fodder crops, grain crops, orchards, and vegetable crops, are often grown using this approach. At present, a total of 80 million cubic meters (Mm3) of treated wastewater (TWW) has been utilized for agricultural purposes in Morocco, accounting for approximately 45% of the overall volume of TWW. The utilization of treated wastewater encompasses several applications, including its usage in agriculture, which covered around 4,000 hectares in 2020. Additionally, treated wastewater is employed for irrigating golf courses and green spaces, recharging groundwater, and facilitating recycling processes within the industrial sector. In relation to the limited utilization of wastewater in agricultural practices, it is imperative to acknowledge that although the Department of Agriculture initially expressed interest in employing treated wastewater for agricultural purposes, subsequent endeavors have failed to expedite the transition from experimental stages to practical implementation²⁹ (Table1).

The utilization of wastewater in Morocco is considered a viable option for mitigating the increasing water scarcity, addressing the challenges posed by climate change, and minimizing the adverse environmental consequences associated with wastewater disposal¹⁸. The utilization of treated wastewater is employed for a multitude of objectives, such as the replenishment of aquifers in the Gharb region, the irrigation of Eucalyptus tree forests in the Kenitra region, and primarily the irrigation of golf courses in various towns , such as Marrakech and Bensliman³⁰. As an illustration, the municipality of Ait-Melloul in Morocco achieved an annual water conservation of 4 million cubic meters by opting to utilize treated wastewater for irrigation purposes rather than relying on the depletion of freshwater resources to irrigate a forest spanning 400 hectares³¹. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the National Water Plan (PNE) and the National Plan for Reuse (PNREU) actively advocate for and strive to enhance the utilization of treated wastewater. These plans have set a target of achieving a yearly reuse of 325 million m3 of treated wastewater by the year 2030 ¹⁸. Furthermore, the Water Law enacted in 2016 (Law 36-15) incorporates a dedicated section addressing the reuse of wastewater and sewage sludge. This section stipulates that the treated wastewater must adhere to quality requirements established by regulatory frameworks ³². The utilization of wastewater in agricultural practices presents numerous advantages; however, it is important to acknowledge that this practice might potentially have adverse effects on soil quality, groundwater purity, and human well-being as a result of the existence of certain contaminants³³.

Table 3: Wastewater physicochemical analysis and reuse in agriculture domain in Morocco

City		Marrakech
Plant		Agroforestry domain
		WW input efflu	WW Terti treat	Soil
pH		7.89±0.01	8.20 ± 0,03	8.25±0.51
EC (us/cm)		1964.43 ± 125	1623.75 ± 112	325.67± 107.1
BOD5(mg/l)		550± 25	6 ± 1.1
COD (mg/l)		825.29 ± 44	29.93 ± 2,2
TKN (mg/l)		83.76 ± 11,2	15.7 ± 3	0.1±0.01
NO3 (mg/l)		-	6.13 ± 0.7
NO2 (mg/l)		-	0.58 ± 0.2	-
TP (mg/l)		10.35 ± 2.1	5.36 ± 0.8	1.57±1.2
PO4 (mg/l)		6.83 ± 0.5	5.05 ± 0.7	-
Organicmatter (%)		-	-	1.3±0.15
Ratio C/N		-	-	7.47±0.69
Assimilable phosphorus (mg/g)		-	-	0.04±0.02
Na+		-	-	-
K+		-	-	-
Mg2+		-	-	-
Ca2+		-	-	-
Results	Stringent measures must be implemented to ensure the prevention of atypical health hazards through the establishment of regulatory oversight. The results gained from the current study demonstrate the viability of implementing this technique in Marrakesh. In relation to the current state of affairs, climate study indicates that the local climatic conditions pose a significant obstacle to water resources. Additionally, soil analysis findings indicate a decrease in soil fertility attributed to the fall in soil organic matter. In order to address this situation, the implementation of treated urban wastewater reuse emerges as a sustainable and promising approach to mitigate water shortages, augment soil fertility, conserve natural resources, foster the growth of local products, and increase the living conditions of agricultural communities and farmers.
References	40

WW: Wastewater; Terti treat: Tertiary treatment; Soil MAA: Maamoura forest soil; Sol BM: Bnimellal soil

Table 3: Conti…..1

City		Bnimellal
Plant		Pepper (Capsicum annuum.L)
		WW	Soil MA	Soil BM
pH		6.82	7.53	7.81
EC (us/cm)		15.83	-	-
BOD5(mg/l)		215
COD (mg/l)		360
TKN (mg/l)		-	-	-
NO3 (mg/l)		74	-	-
NO2 (mg/l)		-	-	-
TP (mg/l)		-	1.39	-
PO4 (mg/l)		-	-	-
Organicmatter (%)		-	-	-
Ratio C/N		-	-	-
Assimilable phosphorus (mg/g)			0.048	19.2
Na+		186	-	-
K+		197	-	-
Mg2+		287	-	-
Ca2+		582	-	-
Results	Wastewater irrigation gives a significant improvement in the agronomic parameters of pepper in both soils; wastewater has allowed a strong increase in yield in terms of fruit weight and a good vegetative development of the plant especially on Maâmora soil which has a sandy texture more adapted to the cultivation of pepper compared to the soil of BéniMellal characterized by a clayey texture; As for the number of fruits per plant, the response of the vegetation is very pronounced with the contribution of 50% of wastewater.
References	41

WW: Wastewater; Terti treat: Tertiary treatment; Soil MAA: Maamoura forest soil; Sol BM: Bnimellal soil

Table 3: Conti…..2

City	Oujda	Result	Reference
Plant	Zucchini, garlic and lettuce	Irrigation with wastewater conducted improved plant yield given their richness in fertilisers and organic matter; The physico-chemical characteristics of the soil are not affected by the nature of the irrigation water; Soil contamination may be probable after several years of irrigation with wastewater, due to the polluting load they contain and the amount of heavy metals they carry; The harvested products have a contamination clearly greater than 5 CF/g of the consumed organ. This is the threshold for an acceptable bacteriological quality according to FAO/WHO recommendations. wastewater can be an alternative to mineral fertilization, provided that they undergo prior adequate purification to reduce both their pollutant load and their degree of contamination to the level required for reuse for agricultural purposes.	42
	Wastewater
pH	7.1
EC (us/cm)	2630
BOD5(mg/l)	280
COD (mg/l)	514
TKN (mg/l)	-
NO3 (mg/l)	0.48
NO2 (mg/l)	0.02
TP (mg/l)	9.97
PO4 (mg/l)	5.43
Organicmatter (%)	-
Ratio C/N	-
Assimilable phosphorus (mg/g)	-
Na+	-
K+	-
Mg2+	-
Ca2+	-

WW: Wastewater; Terti treat: Tertiary treatment; Soil MAA: Maamoura forest soil; Sol BM: Bnimellal soil

Table 3: Conti…..3

City	Al-hoceima		Results	Reference
Plant	Lettuce plant		- The application of treated wastewater in conjunction with mineral fertilizers (TWF) resulted in significant improvements in many plant growth parameters. These included a 33.89% increase in the number of leaves, a 204% increase in leaf area, an 85% increase in fresh weight, a 23.91% increase in dry weight, a 42.62% increase in breadth, and a 65% increase in length. Additionally, the application of TWF led to a substantial 48.61% increase in plant length. Ttreated wastewater presents a potential solution for augmenting the supply of irrigation water during periods of water scarcity.	43
	WW	Soil
pH	7.89	8.3
EC (us/cm)	2350	2.4
BOD5(mg/l)	9	-
COD (mg/l)	<15	-
TKN (mg/l)	-	-
NO3 (mg/l)	2.33	-
NO2 (mg/l)	<0.5	-
TP (mg/l)	1.31	10.5
PO4 (mg/l)	-	-
Organicmatter (%)		1.46
Ratio C/N	-	-
Assimilable phosphorus (mg/g)	-	-
Na+	-	-
K+	-	-
Mg2+	-	-
Ca2+	-	-

WW: Wastewater; Terti treat: Tertiary treatment; Soil MAA: Maamoura forest soil; Sol BM: Bnimellal soil

The process of plant growth necessitates the availability of macronutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium, as well as trace elements. Nitrogen has a crucial role in the biosynthesis of amino acids.According to⁴⁴, it facilitates the proliferation of plant tissue, hence serving as a significant determinant of crop productivity. The nitrogen content in urban wastewater, mostly derived from urine, is predominantly present in the form of ammonium and organic compounds²⁹. However, plants exclusively assimilate it in its mineral state, primarily in the form of nitrates. On a daily basis, individuals excrete approximately 12,5 g of nitrogen⁴⁵, with one-third of this amount being in the form of ammonium and the remaining two-thirds in organic form. Nitrogen deficits are known to result in substantial decreases in crop output, necessitating the provision of nitrogen supplements, such as mineral fertilizers, if deemed required²⁹. Nevertheless, an excessive quantity of nitrogen can have detrimental effects on the growth and productivity of fruit, vegetable and crops. The phenomenon described leads to excessive plant growth, resulting in delayed fruit maturation and a subsequent decline in their quality. The aforementioned phenomenon is commonly observed in instances where wastewater is reused for agricultural purposes without undergoing prior treatment, resulting in a potential reduction in nitrogen loading ²⁹.

Potassium is an essential element for the processes of photosynthesis and protein synthesis. Furthermore, it enables the plant to exhibit drought tolerance.The presence of K+ in wastewater is observed in its mineral form²⁹.Phosphorus serves as a fundamental constituent of cells and functions as an essential carrier of energy. As a constituent of cellular structures, it actively engages in the process of nitrogen assimilation, exerting a significant influence on plant development, particularly in the context of root growth. Additionally, it facilitates the processes of flowering, fruit set, and seed development. It is primarily observed in the context of household wastewater²⁹.

Micronutrients, also known as trace elements, serve as cofactors for several enzymes. They are utilized in relatively minor quantities in comparison to the three primary nutrients, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are inherent constituents of soil, although an external provision may be required to attain the anticipated agricultural productivity. Complementary inputs are typically employed through the utilization of synthetic fertilizers. Small-scale farmers in impoverished nations generally face challenges in accessing expensive resources, such as wastewater treatment systems. Consequently, these farmers are often compelled to exploit the nutrients present in wastewater ²⁹. The use of wastewater for irrigating various crops has given good results in terms of yield and size of the various plants irrigated, given the richness of this water in nutrients such as nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, etc., except those high levels of these elements in the water can lead to negative effects on the irrigated crop. In the absence of control of wastewater prior to its use in irrigation, contamination of the finished product by microbial agents can pose a risk to consumer health and soil quality

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Based on this review of the Moroccan water situation and the feasibility of using wastewater, we can recommend:

- The use of treated wastewater as an effective alternative for irrigating golf courses, green areas and vegetable crops;

- Carrying out regular checks on the water after treatment by the various wastewater treatment plants;

- Use wastewater with an acceptable load in terms of heavy metals, mineral elements and microbial load, in compliance with Moroccan regulations;

- Regularly monitor soil irrigated with wastewater, and finished products used to irrigate crops for consumption, to prevent soil contamination and protect consumers.

CONCLUSION:

In the context of Morocco, the phenomenon of desertification can be accelerated by climate change and the deterioration of land and natural resources, with a special emphasis on water supplies. There is a pressing need for the development of novel approaches to water resource management in order to establish more stringent criteria for the treatment and utilization of non-conventional water sources prior to their discharge into natural ecosystems. The implementation of revised regulations that prioritize tertiary treatments to mitigate potential agro-economic, environmental, and human health issues would greatly enhance the efficacy of utilizing treated wastewater for irrigation in agriculture. The regulatory framework should additionally facilitate the adoption of enhanced wastewater treatment and reuse practices on a broader scale. This is because the existing low rate of wastewater reuse is mostly influenced by cultural factors rather than technological or economic considerations. The use of wastewater for irrigation has produced significant results, reducing drinking water consumption on the one hand and increasing soil fertilization on the other, given the nutrient-rich nature of wastewater. However, the water used for irrigation must meet standards in terms of physicochemical and microbiological quality to prevent poisoning of irrigated crops and contamination of soil and finished products. The relationship between water scarcity and profitability in irrigation agriculture in Morocco exhibits a positive correlation, albeit one that is ultimately unsustainable over an extended period. The implementation of intensive agricultural practices has led to a gradual decline in the overall quality of natural water sources utilized in this context. There is a pressing need for enhanced regulatory measures to ensure the implementation of more effective wastewater treatment methods, with the aim of mitigating the escalating pollution levels and facilitating the safe reuse of treated wastewater.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

No conflict of interest.

AKNOWLEDGEMENT:

Thank to PRIMA programme.

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Received on 26.02.2024 Modified on 01.04.2024

Research J. Pharm. and Tech 2024; 17(10):5132-5140.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2024.00787

Raw sewage Mm³/ year 700	Treatment levels	Treated wastewater		Reused wastewater
	Primary	37 Mm³/year	5%	0 Mm³/year	0%
	Secondary	84 Mm³/year	12%	56 Mm³/year	56%
	Tertiary	56 Mm³/year	8%	59 Mm³/year	59%
	Total	177 Mm³/year	25%	45 Mm³/year	45%

Category	Terms and conditions	Exposed group	Intestinal nematodes(a) (arithmeticmean of the number of eggs per liter (b)	Fecal coliforms [geometric mean number per 100 ml (b)	Wastewater treatment processes capable of ensuring the desired microbiological quality
A	Irrigation of crops to be consumed on land, sports fields and public gardens (c)	Agricultu-ral workers, Consume-rs Public	Absence	<1000 (d)	A series of destabilization basins designed to achieve the desired microbiological quality or any other equivalent treatment
B	Irrigation of cereal, industrial and forage crops, pastures and tree plantations (d)	Agricultu-ral workers	Absence	Nostandard is recommended.	Retention in a destabilization tank for 8-10 days or any other processallowing equivalent elimination of helminths and fecal coliforms
C	Localized irrigation of category B crops if farmworkers and the public are not exposed	No	Not applicable	Not applicable	Pre-treatment depending on the irrigation technique, but at least one primary decantation