INTRODUCTION:

Selenium (Se) is widely used in a variety of fields due to its distinct chemical, physical, and biochemical properties. It is regarded as one of the most important trace elements for human health because it acts as the active site of Se-dependent enzymes such as peroxidase, iodothyronine deiodinase, and thioredoxin reductase. Se's target role is to protect cells from oxidation by activating antioxidative defenses^1-4. Se is commonly utilized as a dietary supplement^5-7, It may also be used to prevent various diseases, including cardiovascular disease, arthritis, muscular dystrophy, and cystic fibrosis ⁸. Furthermore, it plays a significant role in immunity and cancer⁹. Se compounds are thought to be detoxifying agents, acting as antagonists against mercury^10-16 , methylmercury^17-20, cadmium^21-24, silver ²⁵, lead²⁶, and many other elements⁹. Selenium's interactions with other hazardous elements in living organisms are still being investigated^27-30.

Se can be found in the environment and in living organisms, ranging from simple inorganic forms (e.g., selenides, halides, oxyhalides, oxides, acids, and salts of the oxyacid) to the complex biogenic compounds such selenoenzymes and selenium nucleic acids³¹. Selenium biogenic compounds are classified into large families that include simple organic and methylated species, seleno-amino acids, seleno-proteins, seleno-enzymes, seleno-amino-carboxylic acids, selenium peptides, and selenium derivatives of pyrimidine, purine, cholines, steroids, coenzyme A, and many others. Most of these forms play a role in living organisms and have biological functions by contributing to reduction of oxidative stress³². The main problem of most of these organic and non-organic forms is their low bioavailability, and low solubility. Furthermore, Se has a narrow safety window and its biological activity is dependent upon its chemical form since different Se forms have different metabolic pathways⁸.

Selenium nanoparticles (SENPs) have recently been identified as a potential source of this element^33-35. SENPs, like other nanoparticles, have significant chemical, physical, and biological properties and exhibit unique functionalities due to their nanoscale size. These characteristics are linked to the lower surface area per unit volume of SENPs, which results in less interactive nanoparticles that release selenium more slowly. Furthermore, the ability to function with a variety of ligands increases their affinity for targets. Nanoparticles' surface properties, such as surface charge density and surface hydrophobicity, are thought to be critical to their activities. SENPs exhibits higher bioavailability, stronger biological activity, and lower toxicity when compared with other selenium forms such as selenate, selenious acid, Sodium Selenite, selenomethionine and methylselenocysteine.^33,36. With all these advantages, SENPs are a promising candidate for replacing other forms of Se in clinical practice.

There are several methods that is used to prepare SENPs including chemical, physical, and biological techniques. However, the aim of the current review is to study factors affecting SENPs prepared by Microwave irradiation method.

Preparation of SENPs by microwave irradiation technique:

Microwave irradiation is an efficient physical technique that is used for synthesis of nanoparticles^37-42. In this method, microwave energy is applied to heat the reaction mixture uniformly and rapidly, leading to the formation of nanoparticles through direct interaction with the molecules, leading to a corresponding reduction in the reaction rate^43,44. The benefits of using microwave irradiation include faster reaction times, improved particle size control, uniform heating, energy efficiency, and high yield⁴⁵. This method also often results in nanoparticles with enhanced purity and fewer byproducts due to the precise control over reaction conditions making it an attractive green synthesis route ⁴⁶. SENPs prepared by Microwave irradiation employ heating selenium salts and reducing agent in aqueous solution at microwave oven for a certain power and certain time (Figure 1). Several studies have explored the synthesis of SENPs using microwave-assisted methods. These studies have demonstrated the successful synthesis of SENPs with controlled particle sizes, stable crystalline structures, and various polymorphs. A study by Fardsadegh, Vaghari et al.⁴⁷ used SeCl₄ as the source to synthesize black SENPs via microwave-assisted reduction with hydrazine and the surfactant SDS. After exposing the solution to microwave irradiation for 4-5 minutes at 750 W, black SENPs were formed. The resulting nanoparticles were found to be stable, with narrow size distributions and high crystallinity

Figure 1: Schematic representation of the microwave-assisted synthesis of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs). The process involves the use of an aqueous solution containing selenium precursor (e.g., selenite salt) and a reducing agent, exposed to microwave irradiation under controlled temperature and time conditions.

Zhu, Palchik et al.⁴⁸ synthesized various metal chalcogenide nanoparticles using a microwave-assisted approach. They mixed the appropriate metal salts and selenide precursor in a solvent and then heated the mixture in a microwave reactor. The authors found that the microwave-assisted approach resulted in the formation of nanoparticles with narrow size distributions and high crystallinity, and that the optimal reaction conditions varied for each material. The CdSe and PbSe nanoparticles had hexagonal shapes, while the Cu2-xSe nanoparticles had spherical shapes and were found to be copper-deficient. The synthesized nanoparticles exhibited good photoluminescence properties, making them potentially useful in a range of applications such as solar cells, sensors, and optoelectronics.

Several factors affecting formation of the SENPs prepared by microwave irradiation technique including the concentration of selenite salt, concentration of reducing agent, surfactant concentration., reaction time, and temperature. Optimization of these factors influences the characteristics of the synthesized SENPs.

Factors affecting SENPs prepared by microwave irradiation technique:

1. The concentration of selenite salt:

The concentration of selenite salt is a critical factor that influences the synthesis of SENPs. Selenite salt serves as the source of selenium ions that participate in the reduction reaction to form nanoparticles. Altering the concentration of selenite salt has a direct impact on the synthesis process, leading to changes in the size and morphology of the resulting nanoparticles. It was reported that higher concentrations of selenite salt typically result in an increased particle size and decrease the stability of SENPs because of increase the supply of selenium ions, which promotes nucleation and growth of the nanoparticles. Consequently, this often leads to the formation of larger-sized nanoparticles^1,49-51. Conversely, lower concentrations of selenite salt provide a limited supply of selenium ions, which can restrict the nucleation and growth process, resulting in smaller-sized nanoparticles and increase the stability of the SENPs ^37,52. Additionally, variations in the concentration of selenite salt can affect the morphology of the synthesized nanoparticles. Different concentrations can influence the kinetics of the reduction reaction, leading to the formation of nanoparticles with diverse shapes, such as spherical, rod-like, or irregular morphologies^53,54.

2. The concentration of the reducing agent:

The concentration of the reducing agent, the reducing agent is responsible for the reduction of the selenium precursor, such as selenite salt, to form SENPs. By adjusting the concentration of the reducing agent in the synthesis process, researchers can control the reduction kinetics and, subsequently, the size and properties of the nanoparticles. Several studies evaluated the influence of using reducing agents during the synthesis of SENPs, concluded that increasing the concentration of reducing agents more than the concentration of the metal precursor provide nanoparticles with smaller particle size^37,55-57. According to studies by Ahmadi et al. and Eskandari-Nojedehi et al., the concentration of the formed silver and gold NPs increased when the amounts of Aloe vera leaf extract and mushroom extract were increased at lower amounts of silver and gold salts^58,59.

Another study conducted by Sheikhlou, Allahyari et al. ⁵⁷ used 15–25mL of sodium selenite solution and 1–5 mL of walnut leaf extract as reducing agent that were mixed and heated using a domestic microwave oven at fixed power and exposure time of 800W and 4min, respectively concluded that increasing walnut leaf extract from 1 to 5ml was associated with increasing the UV absorbance of SENPs which indicate higher amount of SENPs as the concentration of bio reductants, existing in the extract increased, reduce more amounts of the selenium ions into the SENPs. Also, the study concluded that microwave radiation effectively accelerated the fabrication of Se NPs within minimum processing time. The short preparation time was explained by the effect of electrical charges of microwave electric field.

3. Concentration of surfactants:

Surfactants play a crucial role in the synthesis and stabilization of SENPs. They are commonly employed to control the growth, shape, and stability of nanoparticles during the synthesis process. In a study where microwave irradiation is utilized as a synthesis method for SENPs by employing selenium salts in an aqueous solution as the starting material. SENPs can be formed by heating the solution at 750W for 4 minutes without the use of surfactants. In this procedure, larger aggregates of SENPs with sizes ranging from approximately 200 to 800nm are obtained, along with a high percentage of agglomeration. However, when sodium dodecyl sulfate is applied, the particles exhibit a smaller size and higher homogeneity. Conversely, the use of polyethylene glycol 600 and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide leads to an increase in particle size and a decrease in homogeneity. Transmission electron microscopy analysis confirmed that the particle sizes ranged from approximately 5 to 25 nm⁶⁰. A similar trend was observed in another report, SeCl₄ was taken as the source, reduced using hydrazine, where the polymer Sodium dodecyl sulfate was used as the surfactant, and exposed to microwave irradiation for 4–5 minutes at 750 W to obtain black SENPs⁴⁷.

The concentration of surfactants used in the synthesis can significantly influence the surface properties and stability of selenium nanoparticles. The addition of surfactants at different concentrations can modify the interaction between the nanoparticles and the surrounding environment. At lower surfactant concentrations, the nanoparticles may have higher surface energy, leading to increased aggregation and instability^61,62. On the other hand, higher surfactant concentrations can provide a greater coverage of the nanoparticle surface, reducing the surface energy and preventing particle aggregation^63,64. The concentration of surfactant affects the growth and stabilization of selenium nanoparticles by controlling the adsorption and desorption of surfactant molecules onto the nanoparticle surface^65,66. This interaction can influence the nucleation, growth, and subsequent particle size distribution. Furthermore, the surfactant concentration can impact on the surface charge and hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity of the nanoparticles, thereby affecting their stability in different solvents or environments^67-69. By adjusting the concentration of surfactant during the synthesis, researchers can tailor the surface properties and stability of selenium nanoparticles. This control allows for the optimization of nanoparticle size, shape, dispersibility, and colloidal stability. It is essential to carefully optimize the surfactant concentration to achieve the desired properties and ensure the long-term stability of the synthesized selenium nanoparticles.

4. Reaction time:

The time of reaction is an important parameter in the synthesis of SENPs. The duration of the reaction directly influences the growth and size of the nanoparticles formed. In general, longer reaction times allow for more extensive nucleation and growth processes, leading to the formation of larger nanoparticles. During the reaction, the precursor ions or molecules undergo various chemical reactions and transformations that result in the formation of nanoparticles. With increased reaction time, there is more time for these processes to occur, allowing for the aggregation and coalescence of nanoparticles, leading to their growth. On the other hand, shorter reaction times may favor the formation of smaller nanoparticles. This is because the limited time available for nucleation and growth restricts particle growth and favors the formation of nuclei with smaller sizes. As a result, the overall size distribution of nanoparticles obtained from a shorter reaction time tends to be smaller and more uniform. A study conducted by Mellinas, Jiménez, et al.³⁷ used microwave heating and Theobroma cacao L. bean shells as a reducing and stabilizing agent for synthesis of SENPs. Using a central composite design technique, they were able to determine the ideal reaction conditions, which produced particles with a diameter of 42nm: 15.6min, 788.6W, 0.14g of Na2SeO3, and 50mL of Theobroma cacao L. bean shell extract solution. The two-month-old, uniformly distributed, spherical particles with a diameter of 1-3nm were visible in the TEM images.

Microwave irradiation time was found to affect the particle size. A study conducted by Yu et al. produced various Se nanostructures, including nanoballs, nanotubes, and multiarmed nanorods by reducing H₂SeO₃with L-asparagine in polyethylene glycol solution. At 100°C, the reaction was supported by microwave irradiation. The ratio of L-asparagine to H₂SeO₃ and the time of microwave irradiation controlled the diameter and morphology of SeNPs. It was reported that Increasing reaction time resulted in SENPs with a larger diameter, which aggregated after 15 minutes of microwave treatment⁷⁰

Furthermore, the reaction time can also influence the crystallinity and phase composition of the synthesized nanoparticles. Longer reaction times may allow for the formation of more well-defined crystalline structures, while shorter reaction times can result in the formation of amorphous or less crystalline nanoparticles. A study reported by Jadhav and Khanna et al. used cycloocteno-1,2,3-selenadiazole as a precursor in diphenyl ether, with oleic acid as a surfactant, to synthesize red and black SENPs using microwave energy. The formation of the red SENPs was confirmed in 10-12 minutes by a UV-absorption band at 400nm, while black Se particles were formed after a few more minutes with a band shift to 490nm. The reaction produced stable, crystalline SENPs with a narrow size distribution, and the SENPs exhibited two different polymorphs, trigonal and monoclinic. The polymorphic forms of Se were confirmed through XRD measurements, with trigonal structure for red Se and monoclinic structure for black Se. The authors investigated the effects of reaction time, temperature, and power on the formation of SENPs and their polymorphs, determining that shorter reaction times and higher temperatures favored the formation of the trigonal polymorph ⁵². In summary, the reaction time is a crucial parameter in SENPs synthesis. Longer reaction times tend to produce larger nanoparticles, while shorter reaction times favor the formation of smaller nanoparticles. Optimizing the reaction time is essential to control the size, size distribution, and crystallinity of the synthesized selenium nanoparticles for specific applications.

5. The reaction temperature:

The reaction temperature plays a significant role in determining the rate of reaction, as well as the nucleation and growth processes involved in nanoparticle formation^71,72. The temperature at which the synthesis takes place affects the kinetics of the reaction. Generally, higher temperatures accelerate chemical reactions by providing more energy to the reactant molecules, leading to increased reaction rates^73,74. This can influence the nucleation and growth of nanoparticles, as higher temperatures promote more rapid formation of nuclei and their subsequent growth. Variations in reaction temperature can also have a significant impact on the size, crystallinity, and polymorphs of the synthesized selenium nanoparticles. Higher temperatures can result in larger particle sizes due to increased nucleation and growth rates. On the other hand, lower temperatures may favor the formation of smaller nanoparticles due to slower nucleation and growth processes^{61,63,64,66,75,76}.

In addition to size, the reaction temperature can influence the crystallinity of the nanoparticles. Higher temperatures generally promote the formation of more crystalline structures, while lower temperatures may result in the production of nanoparticles with amorphous or less ordered structures^77-79. Moreover, the reaction temperature can influence the formation of different polymorphs of selenium nanoparticles. Polymorphism refers to the ability of a material to exist in multiple crystal structures. Varying the reaction temperature can lead to the formation of different polymorphs of selenium nanoparticles, each with unique properties and characteristics. Optimizing the reaction temperature is crucial to controlling the size, crystallinity, and polymorphs of the synthesized selenium nanoparticles for specific applications. It is important to note that the reaction temperature should be carefully selected to balance the desired nanoparticle properties with the limitations imposed by the stability and reactivity of the reactants and reaction environment. In summary, the reaction temperature is a critical factor in nanoparticle synthesis, including the synthesis of selenium nanoparticles. It influences the rate of reaction, nucleation, and growth processes, as well as the size, crystallinity, and polymorphs of the nanoparticles. Careful control and optimization of the reaction temperature are necessary to achieve the desired properties and characteristics of the synthesized selenium nanoparticles.

CONCLUSION:

From the previous review it can be concluded that the precise optimization of key synthetic parameters significantly influences the physicochemical properties of SENPs synthesized using the microwave-assisted technique. Variables such as selenite salt concentration, reducing agent ratio, surfactant concentration, reaction time, and thermal conditions during microwave irradiation all play important roles in determining nanoparticle morphology, size distribution, and stability. Tailoring these parameters allows for fine-tuning of SENP properties, resulting in greater control over their formation and potential applications in a variety of biomedical and industrial sectors. Thus, optimizing these factors is critical for creating SENPs with desirable attributes and functionality.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest

REFERENCE:

1. El-Din ASS, Yehia A, Hamza E, A-Elgadir TME, Abd El-Fattah EE. Selenium nanoparticle ameliorates LPS-induced acute lung injury in rats through inhibition of ferroptosis, inflammation, and HSPs. Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology. 2024; 95: 105626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2024.105626

2. Tapiero H, Townsend D, Tew K. The antioxidant role of selenium and seleno-compounds. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy. 2003; 57(3-4): 134-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0753-3322(03)00035-0

3. Menon R. Antioxidants and their therapeutic Potential-A review. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2013; 6(12): 1426-1429. DOI : 0974-360X

4. Zam W, Alshahneh M, Hasan A. Methods of spectroscopy for selenium determination: A review. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2019; 12(12): 6149-6152. DOI: 10.5958/0974-360X.2019.01068.0

5. Liu QJLTJ, Ni J. The molecular biology of selenoproteins and their effects on diseases. Progress in Chemistry. 2009; 21(05): 819. https://manu56.magtech.com.cn/progchem/EN/abstract/abstract9965.shtml.

6. Gao X, Zhang J, Zhang L. Hollow sphere selenium nanoparticles: their in‐vitro anti hydroxyl radical effect. Advanced Materials. 2002; 14(4): 290-293. https://doi.org/10.1002/1521-4095(20020219)14:4<290::AID-ADMA290>3.0.CO;2-U

7. Fairweather-Tait SJ, Bao Y, Broadley MR, et al. Selenium in human health and disease. Antioxidants & redox signaling. 2011; 14(7): 1337-1383. https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2010.327

8. Weekley CM, Harris HH. Which form is that? The importance of selenium speciation and metabolism in the prevention and treatment of disease. Chemical Society Reviews. 2013; 42(23): 8870-8894. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3CS60272A

9. Masukawa T. Pharmacological and toxicological aspects of inorganic and organic selenium compounds. Organic Selenium and Tellurium Compounds (1987). 1987; 2: 377-392. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470771785.ch9

10. Pařízek J, Ošťádalová I. The protective effect of small amounts of selenite in sublimate intoxication. Experientia. 1967; 23(2): 142-143. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02135970

11. Ganther H, Goudie C, Sunde M, et al. Selenium: relation to decreased toxicity of methylmercury added to diets containing tuna. Science. 1972; 175(4026): 1122-1124. DOI: 10.1126/science.175.4026.1122

12. Iwata H, Okamoto H, Ohsawa Y. Effect of selenium on methylmercury poisoning. Research communications in chemical pathology and pharmacology. 1973; 5(3): 673-680. DOI: 10.1007/BF01684595.

13. Ribeiro M, Zephyr N, Silva J, et al. Assessment of the mercury-selenium antagonism in rainbow trout fish. Chemosphere. 2022; 286: 131749. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131749

14. Huang P, Yang W, Johnson VE, et al. Selenium–sulfur functionalized biochar as amendment for mercury-contaminated soil: High effective immobilization and inhibition of mercury re-activation. Chemosphere. 2022; 306: 135552. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135552

15. Gao P-C, Chu J-H, Chen X-W, Li L-X, Fan R-F. Selenium alleviates mercury chloride-induced liver injury by regulating mitochondrial dynamics to inhibit the crosstalk between energy metabolism disorder and NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated inflammation. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2021; 228: 113018. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.113018

16. Takahashi K, Encinar JR, Costa-Fernández JM, Ogra Y. Distributions of mercury and selenium in rats ingesting mercury selenide nanoparticles. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety. 2021; 226: 112867. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112867

17. Iwata H, Masukawa T, Kito H, Hayashi M. Involvement of tissue sulfhydryls in the formation of a complex of methylmercury with selenium. Biochemical pharmacology. 1981; 30(23): 3159-3163. DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(81)90513-x

18. Naganuma A, Kojima Y, Imura N. Interaction of methylmercury and selenium in mouse: formation and decomposition of bis (methylmercuric) selenide. Research Communications in Chemical Pathology and Pharmacology. 1980; 30(2): 301-316. DOI: PMID: 7444160

19. Moniruzzaman M, Lee S, Park Y, Min T, Bai SC. Evaluation of dietary selenium, vitamin C and E as the multi-antioxidants on the methylmercury intoxicated mice based on mercury bioaccumulation, antioxidant enzyme activity, lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial oxidative stress. Chemosphere. 2021; 273: 129673. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129673

20. Gao PC, Chen XW, Chu JH, Li LX, Wang ZY, Fan RF. Antagonistic effect of selenium on mercuric chloride in the central immune organs of chickens: The role of microRNA‐183/135b‐FOXO1/TXNIP/NLRP3 inflammasome axis. Environmental Toxicology. 2022; 37(5): 1047-1057. DOI: 10.1002/tox.23463

21. Kar A. Pervention of cadmium induced changes in the gonads of rat by zinc and selenium-A study in antagonism between metals in the biological system. Proc Nat Inst Sci India B26. 1960: 40-50. DOI: 1573105974643044736

22. Ge J, Guo K, Huang Y, et al. Comparison of antagonistic effects of nanoparticle-selenium, selenium-enriched yeast and sodium selenite against cadmium-induced cardiotoxicity via AHR/CAR/PXR/Nrf2 pathways activation. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry. 2022; 105: 108992. DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2022.108992

23. Liang Z-Z, Zhang Y-X, Zhu R-M, et al. Identification of epigenetic modifications mediating the antagonistic effect of selenium against cadmium-induced breast carcinogenesis. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2022; 29(15): 22056-22068. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-17355-z

24. Bi S-S, Talukder M, Jin H-T, et al. Nano-selenium alleviates cadmium-induced cerebellar injury by activating metal regulatory transcription factor 1 mediated metal response. Animal Nutrition. 2022; 11: 402-412. DOI: 10.1016/j.aninu.2022.06.021

25. Wagner PA, Hoekstra WG, Ganther HE. Alleviation of silver toxicity by selenite in the rat in relation to tissue glutathione peroxidase. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 1975; 148(4): 1106-1110. DOI: 10.3181/00379727-148-38697

26. Rastogi SC, Clausen J, Srivastava K. Selenium and lead: mutual detoxifying effects. Toxicology. 1976; 6(3): 377-388. DOI: 10.1016/0300-483x(76)90041-x

27. Maher W, Baldwin S, Deaker M, Lrving M. Characteristics of selenium in Australian marine biota. Applied Organometallic Chemistry. 1992; 6(2): 103-112. https://doi.org/10.1002/aoc.590060203

28. Ishizaki M, Ueno S, Okazaki T, Suzuki T, Oyamada N. Interaction of arsenic and selenium on the metabolism of these elements in hamsters. Applied organometallic chemistry. 1988; 2(4): 323-331. https://doi.org/10.1002/aoc.590020408

29. Czauderna M, Rochalska M. Interaction between Se and Cr and distribution of Zn, Rb, Co, and Fe in mice given chromate ions and selenium compounds. Journal of radioanalytical and nuclear chemistry. 1989; 134(2): 383-392. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02278275

30. Kędziorski A, Nakonieczny M, Świerczek E, Szulińska E. Cadmium-selenium antagonism and detoxifying enzymes in insects. Fresenius' journal of analytical chemistry. 1996; 354(5): 571-575. DOI: 10.1007/s0021663540571

31. Soda K, Tanaka H, Esaki N. Biochemistry of physiologically active selenium compounds. Organic Selenium and Tellurium Compounds (1987). 1987; 2: 349-365. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470771785.ch7

32. Kieliszek M, Błażejak S. Selenium: Significance, and outlook for supplementation. Nutrition. 2013; 29(5): 713-718. DOI: 10.1016/j.nut.2012.11.012

33. Zhang J-S, Gao X-Y, Zhang L-D, Bao Y-P. Biological effects of a nano red elemental selenium. Biofactors. 2001; 15(1): 27-38. DOI: 10.1002/biof.5520150103

34. Das TT. Role of antioxidants in health and diseases-a review. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2015; 8(8): 1033-1037. DOI : 10.5958/0974-360X.2015.00176.6

35. Mahood HE, Abbood BM. Physiological and Histological Study of Preventive effect of Antioxidants, Selenium and Vitamin C with Garlic in Rats treated with Sodium Fluoride. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2018; 11(3): 941-945. DOI : 10.5958/0974-360X.2018.00174.9

36. Zhang J, Wang X, Xu T. Elemental selenium at nano size (Nano-Se) as a potential chemopreventive agent with reduced risk of selenium toxicity: comparison with se-methylselenocysteine in mice. Toxicological sciences. 2008; 101(1): 22-31. DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfm221

37. Mellinas C, Jiménez A, Garrigós MdC. Microwave-assisted green synthesis and antioxidant activity of selenium nanoparticles using Theobroma cacao L. bean shell extract. Molecules. 2019; 24(22): 4048. DOI: 10.3390/molecules24224048

38. Borowska M, Jiménez-Lamana J, Bierla K, Jankowski K, Szpunar J. A green and fast microwave-assisted synthesis of selenium nanoparticles and their characterization under gastrointestinal conditions using mass spectrometry. Food Chemistry. 2023; 417: 135864. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135864

39. Kulkarni NS, Gite PD, Munde MK, Dhole SN, Khiste RH. A comprehensive review on application of microwave irradiation for preparation of inclusion complexes with cyclodextrins. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2021; 14(2): 1131-1136. DOI : 10.5958/0974-360X.2021.00203.1

40. Deo S, Janghel A, Raut P, et al. Emerging microwave assisted extraction (MAE) techniques as an innovative green technologies for the effective extraction of the active phytopharmaceuticals. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2015; 8(5): 655-666. DOI : 10.5958/0974-360X.2015.00104.3

41. Memon S, Bhise KS. Microwave irradiation technique: A green chemistry approach for dissolution enhancement of ritonavir. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2023; 16(6): 2643-2648. DOI : 10.52711/0974-360X.2023.00434

42. Renugadevi K, Kumar N, Nachiyar CV. Phytosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticle using Ginger extract as a Reducing agent by Microwave Irradiation method and invitro Evaluation of its Antibacterial activity and Cytotoxicity. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2017; 10(12): 4142-4146. DOI: 10.5958/0974-360X.2017.00754.5

43. Ranjitha VR, Rai VR. Selenium nanostructure: Progress towards green synthesis and functionalization for biomedicine. Journal of Pharmaceutical Investigation. 2021/03/01 2021; 51(2): 117-135. 10.1007/s40005-020-00510-y https://doi.org/10.1007/s40005-020-00510-y

44. Kumar A, Kuang Y, Liang Z, Sun X. Microwave chemistry, recent advancements, and eco-friendly microwave-assisted synthesis of nanoarchitectures and their applications: a review. Materials Today Nano. 2020; 11: 100076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtnano.2020.100076

45. Wijianto B, Safitri CI. Synthesis of Mono-Carbonyl Analogues of Curcumin Assisted by Microwave Irradiation. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2021; 14(9): 4591-4594. DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2021.00798

46. Nomanbhay S, Ong MY. A review of microwave-assisted reactions for biodiesel production. Bioengineering. 2017; 4(2): 57. DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering4020057

47. Fardsadegh B, Vaghari H, Mohammad-Jafari R, Najian Y, Jafarizadeh-Malmiri H. Biosynthesis, characterization and antimicrobial activities assessment of fabricated selenium nanoparticles using Pelargonium zonale leaf extract. Green Processing and synthesis. 2019; 8(1): 191-198. https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2018-0060

48. Zhu J, Palchik O, Chen S, Gedanken A. Microwave assisted preparation of CdSe, PbSe, and Cu2-x Se nanoparticles. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 2000; 104(31): 7344-7347. DOI: 10.1021/jp001488t

49. Skalickova S, Milosavljevic V, Cihalova K, Horky P, Richtera L, Adam V. Selenium nanoparticles as a nutritional supplement. Nutrition. 2017; 33: 83-90. DOI: 10.1016/j.nut.2016.05.001

50. Ferro C, Florindo HF, Santos HA. Selenium nanoparticles for biomedical applications: from development and characterization to therapeutics. Advanced healthcare materials. 2021; 10(16): 2100598. DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202100598

51. Hawrylak-Nowak B. Selenite is more efficient than selenate in alleviation of salt stress in lettuce plants. Acta Biologica Cracoviensia Series Botanica. 2015; 57(2). DOI: 10.1515/abcsb-2015-0023

52. Jadhav AA, Khanna PK. Impact of microwave irradiation on cyclo-octeno-1, 2, 3-selenadiazole: Formation of selenium nanoparticles and their polymorphs. Rsc Advances. 2015; 5(56): 44756-44763. DOI: 10.1039/c5ra05701a

53. El-Badri AM, Hashem AM, Batool M, et al. Comparative efficacy of bio-selenium nanoparticles and sodium selenite on morpho-physiochemical attributes under normal and salt stress conditions, besides selenium detoxification pathways in Brassica napus L. Journal of Nanobiotechnology. 2022; 20(1): 163. DOI: 10.1186/s12951-022-01370-4

54. Akçay FA, Avcı A. Effects of process conditions and yeast extract on the synthesis of selenium nanoparticles by a novel indigenous isolate Bacillus sp. EKT1 and characterization of nanoparticles. Archives of Microbiology. 2020; 202(8): 2233-2243. DOI: 10.1007/s00203-020-01942-8

55. Yan J-K, Qiu W-Y, Wang Y-Y, Wang W-H, Yang Y, Zhang H-N. Fabrication and stabilization of biocompatible selenium nanoparticles by carboxylic curdlans with various molecular properties. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2018/01/01/ 2018; 179: 19-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.09.063

56. Kokila K, Elavarasan N, Sujatha V. Diospyros montana leaf extract-mediated synthesis of selenium nanoparticles and their biological applications. New Journal of Chemistry. 2017; 41(15): 7481-7490. DOI: 10.1039/c7nj01124e

57. Sheikhlou K, Allahyari S, Sabouri S, Najian Y, Jafarizadeh-Malmiri H. Walnut leaf extract-based green synthesis of selenium nanoparticles via microwave irradiation and their characteristics assessment. Open Agriculture. 2020; 5(1): 227-235. https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2020-0024

58. Ahmadi O, Jafarizadeh-Malmiri H, Jodeiri N. Eco-friendly microwave-enhanced green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Aloe vera leaf extract and their physico-chemical and antibacterial studies. Green Processing and Synthesis. 2018; 7(3): 231-240. https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2017-0039

59. Eskandari-Nojedehi M, Jafarizadeh-Malmiri H, Rahbar-Shahrouzi J. Hydrothermal green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) extract: physico-chemical characteristics and antifungal activity studies. Green Processing and Synthesis. 2018; 7(1): 38-47.

60. Panahi-Kalamuei M, Salavati-Niasari M, Hosseinpour-Mashkani SM. Facile microwave synthesis, characterization, and solar cell application of selenium nanoparticles. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2014/12/25/ 2014; 617: 627-632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2014.07.174

61. Alhadrami HA, El-Din ASS, Hassan HM, et al. Development and evaluation of a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system for sinapic acid with improved antiviral efficacy against SARS-CoV-2. Pharmaceutics. 2023; 15(11): 2531. DOI 10.1515/gps-2017-0004

62. Cao X, Xiong C, Zhao X, et al. Tuning self-assembly of amphiphilic sodium alginate-decorated selenium nanoparticle surfactants for antioxidant Pickering emulsion. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2022; 210: 600-613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.04.214

63. Gardouh A, Srag El-Din AS, Moustafa Y, Gad S. Formulation factors of starch-based nanosystems preparation and their pharmaceutical application. Records of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences. 2021; 5(Pharmacology-Pharmaceutics): 28-39. DOI: 10.21608/rpbs.2020.51097.1080

64. Gardouh AR, Srag El-Din AS, Salem MS, Moustafa Y, Gad S. Starch nanoparticles for enhancement of oral bioavailability of a newly synthesized thienopyrimidine derivative with anti-proliferative activity against pancreatic cancer. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2021: 3071-3093. https://doi.org/10.2147/DDDT.S321962

65. Chauhan P, Bhasin KK, Chaudhary S. High selectivity and adsorption proficiency of surfactant-coated selenium nanoparticles for dye removal application. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2021; 28(43): 61344-61359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15024-9

66. Gardouh AR, El-Din AS, Mostafa Y, Gad S. Starch Nanoparticles Preparation and Characterization by in situ combination of Sono-precipitation and Alkali hydrolysis under Ambient Temperature. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2021; 14(7): 3543-3552. DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2021.00614

67. McNamee CE, Kawakami H. Effect of the surfactant charge and concentration on the change in the forces between two charged surfaces in surfactant solutions by a liquid flow. Langmuir. 2020; 36(8): 1887-1897. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b03377

68. Samuel G, Nazim U, El-Din AS. Physicochemical characterization of Novel Particulate Delivery Systems for Antitumor/metastatic Therapeutics. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2021; 14(9): 4837-4844. DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2021.00840

69. Samuel G, Nazim U, El-Din AS. Optimization of PLGA nanoparticles for delivery of Novel anticancer CK-10 peptide. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2021; 14(10): 5371-5379. DOI : 10.52711/0974-360X.2021.00937

70. Yu B, You P, Song M, Zhou Y, Yu F, Zheng W. A facile and fast synthetic approach to create selenium nanoparticles with diverse shapes and their antioxidation ability. New Journal of Chemistry. 2016; 40(2): 1118-1123. DOI: 10.1039/c5nj02519b

71. Thanh NT, Maclean N, Mahiddine S. Mechanisms of nucleation and growth of nanoparticles in solution. Chemical reviews. 2014; 114(15): 7610-7630. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr400544s

72. Zhang R, Khalizov A, Wang L, Hu M, Xu W. Nucleation and growth of nanoparticles in the atmosphere. Chemical reviews. 2012; 112(3): 1957-2011. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr2001756

73. Levine R, Manz J. The effect of reagent energy on chemical reaction rates: An information theoretic analysis. The Journal of Chemical Physics. 1975; 63(10): 4280-4303. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.431198

74. Wei Z, Li Y, Cooks RG, Yan X. Accelerated reaction kinetics in microdroplets: Overview and recent developments. Annual Review of Physical Chemistry. 2020; 71(1): 31-51. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-physchem-121319-110654

75. Frawley PJ, Mitchell NA, Ó'Ciardhá CT, Hutton KW. The effects of supersaturation, temperature, agitation and seed surface area on the secondary nucleation of paracetamol in ethanol solutions. Chemical engineering science. 2012; 75: 183-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2012.03.041

76. Srag El-Din AS. Azithromycin loaded chitosan nanoparticles preparation and in-vitro characterization. Delta University Scientific Journal. 2022; 5(2). DOI: 10.21608/dusj.2022.275433

77. Jog R, Burgess DJ. Pharmaceutical amorphous nanoparticles. Journal of pharmaceutical sciences. 2017; 106(1): 39-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xphs.2016.09.014

78. Li Y, White T, Lim S. Low-temperature synthesis and microstructural control of titania nano-particles. Journal of solid state chemistry. 2004; 177(4-5): 1372-1381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssc.2003.11.016

79. Tavakoli AH, Maram PS, Widgeon SJ, et al. Amorphous alumina nanoparticles: structure, surface energy, and thermodynamic phase stability. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2013; 117(33): 17123-17130. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp405820g

Received on 02.10.2024 Revised on 16.01.2025

Accepted on 14.03.2025 Published on 02.05.2025

Available online from May 07, 2025

Research J. Pharmacy and Technology. 2025;18(5):2003-2009.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2025.00286

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Creative Commons License.