Author(s):
Muhammad Amin Nasution, Didi Nurhadi Illian, Hilda Maysarah, Dhea Nur Fadhilah, Nur Irhamni Sabrina, Rena Meutia, Muhammad Andry, Muhammad Fauzan Lubis, Nia Novranda Pertiwi
Email(s):
fauzan.lubis@usu.ac.id.
DOI:
10.52711/0974-360X.2026.00466 
Address:
Muhammad Amin Nasution1, Didi Nurhadi Illian1,5, Hilda Maysarah1, Dhea Nur Fadhilah1, Nur Irhamni Sabrina1, Rena Meutia1, Muhammad Andry2, Muhammad Fauzan Lubis3*, Nia Novranda Pertiwi4
1Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Aceh 23111, Indonesia.
2Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Sriwijaya, Sumatera Selatan 30662, Indonesia.
3Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Sumatera Utara 20155, Indonesia.
4Departmen of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Mulawarman 75119, Samarinda, Indonesia.
5Doctoral Program of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
*Corresponding Author
Published In:
Volume - 19,
Issue - 7,
Year - 2026
ABSTRACT:
Bacterial infections resulting from Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria are prevalent health issues. Due to increasing antibiotic resistance, alternative treatments are needed. The pharmacological activities of Melastoma candidum D. Don plant extracts are promising. Nanoparticle extracts enhance particle interaction, surface solubility, and antibacterial activity, making them attractive in health sciences. The study evaluated the in vitro antibacterial effectiveness of nanoparticles obtained from Melastoma candidum D. Don leaf extract against microorganisms using the disc diffusion technique, both gram-positive and gram-negative. The ethanol extract of Melastoma candidum D. Don leaf was obtained using Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE) with 96% ethanol. The total flavonoid quantity and antioxidant activity were assessed using the DPPH technique by UV-Visible spectrophotometry. Ionic gelation using 0.2% chitosan and 0.1% sodium tripolyphosphate (Na-TPP) produced nanoparticles. Nanoparticles were analyzed utilizing a Particle Size Analyzer (PSA) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The antibacterial activity was evaluated at concentrations of 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10%. DMSO was the negative control and chloramphenicol the positive control. The ethanol extract contained 44.78± 0.18mgQE/g of total flavonoids. In the DPPH experiment, the IC50 value was 12.51µg/mL, indicating strong antioxidant activity. PSA analysis determined an optimal nanoparticle size of 283.55nm, while SEM analysis revealed particle morphology at 500x and 1000x magnifications. The nanoparticles inhibited all tested bacteria, with inhibition zones for Escherichia coli ranging from 11.24 to 13.13mm across concentrations" to avoid implying higher concentrations were less active, which is the highest inhibitory power. The additional microorganisms examined comprised Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus mutans, and Cutibacterium acnes. Nanoparticles of the ethanol extract of Melastoma candidum D. Don leaf exhibited antibacterial activity. This study indicates that chitosan-based nanoparticles may function as an alternative antibacterial agent by suppressing the proliferation of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
Cite this article:
Muhammad Amin Nasution, Didi Nurhadi Illian, Hilda Maysarah, Dhea Nur Fadhilah, Nur Irhamni Sabrina, Rena Meutia, Muhammad Andry, Muhammad Fauzan Lubis, Nia Novranda Pertiwi. Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Melastoma candidum D. Don Leaf and Chitosan–Tripolyphosphate Nanoparticles: Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activities. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2026;19(7):3273-0. doi: 10.52711/0974-360X.2026.00466
Cite(Electronic):
Muhammad Amin Nasution, Didi Nurhadi Illian, Hilda Maysarah, Dhea Nur Fadhilah, Nur Irhamni Sabrina, Rena Meutia, Muhammad Andry, Muhammad Fauzan Lubis, Nia Novranda Pertiwi. Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Melastoma candidum D. Don Leaf and Chitosan–Tripolyphosphate Nanoparticles: Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activities. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2026;19(7):3273-0. doi: 10.52711/0974-360X.2026.00466 Available on: https://www.rjptonline.org/AbstractView.aspx?PID=2026-19-7-53
REFERENCES:
1. Addissouky TA. El Sayed IET. Al MM. Wang Y. El Baz A, Elarabany N, Khalil AA. Oxidative stress and inflammation: elucidating mechanisms of smoking-attributable pathology for therapeutic targeting. Bulletin of the National Research Centre. 2024; 48(1): 16. doi.org/10.1186/s42269-024-01174-6.
2. Qureshi KA. Parvez A. Khan MMU. Aspatwar A. Atiya A. Elhassan GO. Jaremko M. Exploring nature's hidden treasure: Unraveling the untapped phytochemical and pharmacological potentials of Clinopodium vulgare L.–A hidden gem in the Lamiaceae family. Heliyon. 2024; 10(2). doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24781.
3. Zheng WJ. Ren YS. Wu ML. Yang YL. Fan Y. Piao XH. Wang SM. A review of the traditional uses, phytochemistry and biological activities of the Melastoma genus. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2021; 264: 113322. doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.113322.
4. Leyane TS. Jere SW. Houreld. NN. Oxidative stress in ageing and chronic degenerative pathologies: molecular mechanisms involved in counteracting oxidative stress and chronic inflammation. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(13): 7273. doi.org/10.3390/ijms23137273.
5. Fitri K. Andry M. Khairani TN. Nasution MA. Bu'ulolo AAC. Lubis MF. Antioxidant Potential of Ethanol Extracts Leaf and Stem of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. with DPPH, ABTS, and Frap Methods. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2024; 17(12): 6084-6090. doi.org/10.52711/0974-360x.2024.00922.
6. Lubis LD. Prananda AT. Juwita NA. Nasution MA. Syahputra RA. Sumaiyah S. Atiqah JF. Unveiling antioxidant capacity of standardized chitosan-tripolyphosphate microcapsules containing polyphenol-rich extract of Portulaca oleraceae. Heliyon. 2024; 10(8). doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29541.
7. Akbari B. Baghaei‐Yazdi N. Bahmaie M. Mahdavi AF. The role of plant‐derived natural antioxidants in reduction of oxidative stress. BioFactors. 2022; 48(3): 611-633. doi.org/10.1002/biof.1831.
8. Nasution MA. Andry M. Lubis MF. Illian DN. Rani Z. Fauzi ZPA. Phytochemical Analysis and Nanoparticle Formulations of Extracts Myristica fragrans Houtt Leaf as Antibacterial. Trends in Sciences. 2024; 21(10): 8335-8335. doi.org/10.48048/tis.2024.8335.
9. Elumalai K. Srinivasan S. Shanmugam A. Review of the efficacy of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems for cancer treatment. Biomedical Technology. 2024; 5: 109-122. doi.org/10.1016/j.bmt.2023.09.001.
10. Peres Fabbri L. Cavallero A. Vidotto F. Abriele M. Bioactive Peptides from Fermented Foods: Production Approaches, Sources, and Potential Health Benefits. Foods. 2024; 13(21): 3369. doi.org/10.3390/foods13213369.
11. Gazizova A. Datkhayev U. Amirkhanova A. Ustenova G. Kozhanova K. Ikhsanov Y. Berdgaleyeva A. Phytochemical Profiling of Mentha asiatica Boriss. Leaf Extracts: Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activities. ES Food and Agroforestry. 2025; 19: 1355. doi.org/10.30919/esfaf1355.
12. Usman M. Nakagawa M. Cheng S. Emerging trends in green extraction techniques for bioactive natural products. Processes. 2023; 11(12): 3444. doi.org/10.3390/pr11123444.
13. Da Silva RF. Carneiro CN. de Sousa CBDC. Gomez FJ. Espino M. Boiteux J. Dias FDS. Sustainable extraction bioactive compounds procedures in medicinal plants based on the principles of green analytical chemistry: A review. Microchemical Journal. 2022; 175: 107184. doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2022.107184.
14. Bitwell C. Indra SS. Luke C. Kakoma MK. A review of modern and conventional extraction techniques and their applications for extracting phytochemicals from plants. Scientific African. 2023; 19: e01585. doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2023.e01585.
15. Boli E. Prinos N. Louli V. Pappa G. Stamatis H. Magoulas K. Voutsas E. Recovery of bioactive extracts from olive leaf using conventional and microwave-assisted extraction with classical and deep eutectic solvents. Separations. 2022; 9(9): 255. doi.org/10.3390/separations9090255.
16. Mokaizh AAB. Nour AH. Ukaegbu CI. Microwave-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from Commiphora gileadensis leaf and their characterization. Results in Engineering. 2024; 24: 102892. doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102892.
17. Anggraini L. Emriadi Y. Zulaiha S. Pardi H. Stainless 37 Steel Corrosion Inhibition in a Hydrochloric Acid Solution with Senggani (Melastoma Candidum D. Don) Leaf Extract. Portugaliae Electrochimica Acta. 2023; 41(3): 199-210. doi.org/10.4152/pea.2023410302.
18. Andry M. Ginting I. Nasution MA. Lubis MF. Impact of Solvent Type on Total Flavonoid Content and Sun Protection Factors in Centella asiatica (L.) Urban Leaf Extract. Malaysian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences. 2025; 21(3): 1998-2007. doi.org/10.11113/mjfas.v21n3.3603.
19. Erenler R. Yaman C. Demirtas L. Hakki Alma M. Phytochemical investigation of Hypericum heterophyllum flowers: LC-ESI-MS/MS analysis, total phenolic and flavonoid contents, antioxidant activity. The Natural Products Journal. 2023; 13(7): 37-45. doi.org/10.2174/2210315513666230112165545.
20. Ihsanpuro SI. Gunawan S. Ibrahim R. Aparamarta HW. Extract with high 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) inhibitory capability from pericarp and seed of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) using microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) two-phase solvent technique. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 2022; 15(12): 104310. doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2022.104310.
21. Baliyan S. Mukherjee R. Priyadarshini A. Vibhuti A. Gupta A. Pandey RP. Chang CM. Determination of antioxidants by DPPH radical scavenging activity and quantitative phytochemical analysis of Ficus religiosa. Molecules. 2022; 27(4): 1326. doi.org/10.3390/molecules27041326.
22. Liu M. Chen H. Pan F. Wu X. Zhang Y. Fang X. Peng W. Propolis ethanol extract functionalized chitosan/Tenebrio molitor larvae protein film for sustainable active food packaging. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2024; 343: 122445. doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122445.
23. Ghadiri L. Naji L. Javanbakht M. Fabrication of high performance cation-exchange membrane based on sodium tripolyphosphate (NaTPP)-grafted graphene oxide for electrodialysis. Separation and Purification Technology. 2024; 330: 125402. doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2023.125402.
24. Lakikza I. Benguerba Y. Boublia A. Aouni SI. Lahbib H. Ferkous H. Ernst B. Comprehensive evaluation of Alysicarpus compactum extract as a natural corrosion inhibitor for St37 carbon steel in acidic media. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 2025; 147: 161-178. doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2024.12.010.
25. Fahmawati T. Akbar RIS. Kaswati NMN. Syakuran LA. Safithri M. The evaluation of antioxidant activity of cinnamon bark (Cinnamomum burmannii) nanopowder in comparison with extracts. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2024.03.037.
26. Šukele R. Lauberte L. Kovalcuka L. Logviss K. Bārzdiņa A. Brangule A. Bandere D. Chemical Profiling and Antioxidant Activity of Tanacetum vulgare L. Wild-Growing in Latvia. Plants. 2023; 12(10): 1968. doi.org/10.3390/plants12101968
27. Mohammed MJ. Anand U. Altemimi AB. Tripathi V. Guo Y. Pratap-Singh A. Phenolic composition, antioxidant capacity and antibacterial activity of white wormwood (Artemisia herba-alba). Plants. 2021; 10(1): 164. doi.org/10.3390/plants10010164.
28. Quan H. Wang S. Xi X. Zhang Y. Ding Y. Li Y. Liu Y. Deep learning enhanced multiplex detection of viable foodborne pathogens in digital microfluidic chip. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2024; 245: 115837. doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2023.115837.
29. Situmorang VC. Ramadhani S. Okselni T. Angelina M. Dewi RT. Rahmi EP. Septama AW. Microwave-assisted green synthesis of Cassia alata-mediated gold nanoparticles and evaluation of its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial activities. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery. 2025; 15(6): 8701-8714. doi.org/10.1007/s13399-024-05950-2.
30. Prasetya F. Salam S. Rijai HR. Kuncoro H. Rusli R. Rahmadani A. Rijai L. Pharmacognostic Profile of Simplicia and Ethanolic Leaf Extract from Indonesian Piper betle var. nigra. Pharmacognosy Journal. 2022; 14(5). doi.org/10.5530/pj.2022.14.143.
31. Febriyanti MK. Nurhasnawati H. The characterization of the simplies and ethanol extracts of limpasu leaf and fruit (Baccaurea lanceolata (Miq.) Müll. Arg.). Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2023; 12(2): 131-137. doi.org/10.20527/jps.v6i2.7345.
32. Dubale S. Kebebe D. Zeynudin A. Abdissa N. Suleman S. Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity evaluation of selected medicinal plants in Ethiopia. Journal of experimental pharmacology. 2023; 51-62. doi.org/10.2147/jep.s379805.
33. Vaou N. Stavropoulou E. Voidarou C. Tsigalou C. Bezirtzoglou E. Towards advances in medicinal plant antimicrobial activity: A review study on challenges and future perspectives. Microorganisms. 2021; 9(10): 2041. doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9102041.
34. Jain A. Bhise K. Biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles from Saraca asoca: cytotoxicity, antioxidant, antimicrobial evaluation, and topical gel development. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Research. 2025; 13(5): 147-164. doi.org/10.69857/joapr.v13i5.1300.
35. Zając M. Kotyńska J. Zambrowski G. Breczko J. Deptuła P. Cieśluk M. Naumowicz M.Exposure to polystyrene nanoparticles leads to changes in the zeta potential of bacterial cells. Scientific Reports. 2023; 13(1): 9552. doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-36603-5.
36. Faisal S. Jan H. Shah SA. Shah S. Khan A. Akbar MT. Syed S. Green synthesis of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles using aqueous fruit extracts of Myristica fragrans: their characterizations and biological and environmental applications. ACS omega. 2021; 6(14): 9709-9722. doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c00310.
37. Tiji S. Benayad O. Berrabah M. El Mounsi I. Mimouni M. Phytochemical profile and antioxidant activity of Nigella sativa L growing in Morocco. The Scientific World Journal. 2021; 2021(1): 6623609. oi.org/10.1155/2021/6623609.
38. Vinci G. D’Ascenzo F. Maddaloni L. Prencipe SA. Tiradritti M. The influence of green and black tea infusion parameters on total polyphenol content and antioxidant activity by ABTS and DPPH assays. Beverages. 2022; 8(2): 18. doi.org/10.3390/beverages8020018.
39. Wołosiak R. Drużyńska B. Derewiaka D. Piecyk M. Majewska E. Ciecierska M. Pakosz P. Verification of the conditions for determination of antioxidant activity by ABTS and DPPH assays—A practical approach. Molecules, 2021; 27(1): 50. doi.org/10.3390/molecules27010050.
40. Yadav A. Kumar H. Kumar P. Rani G. Maken S. Syzygium cumini leaf extract mediated green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles: A sustained release for anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-corrosive applications. Journal of Molecular Structure. 2025; 1325: 141017. doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2024.141017.
41. Hamid L. L. Hamed H. Al-Fahdawi A. M. Hamid S. L. Mutter T. Y. Ali H. H. Truffle mediated preparation of bacterial culture medium and mycosynthesis of titanium oxide nanoparticles loaded with polyvinyl alcohol/sodium alginate aerogel beads for antibacterial activity. Journal of Sol-Gel Science and Technology. 2024; 112(2): 512-523.